Marijuana use by College students as a health behavior concern

By Aysha Siddiqui.

Walden University.

Marijuana use by College students as a health behavior concern

Abstract

This paper examines the use of the drug called marijuana by college students, the research on the rising trend of the use of the drug by students, the harmful effects of the drug on the health of the users and the motivational factors that may be presented to the students for abstinence from the use of marijuana.

Keywords: - marijuana, health behavior, motivational factors marijuana.

Marijuana use by College students as a health behavior concern

Health concerns for Marijuana users

‘Marijuana’ is a substance described by the National Institute of Drug abuse as ‘a greenish-gray mixture of the dried, shredded leaves, stems, seeds, and flowers of Cannabis sativa—the hemp plant’. For a common person marijuana is a drug that’s used with a hand rolled paper and known as the ‘joint’.  Gledhill-Hoyt et al (2000) did a study on the rising trend of marijuana use by college students by using over fifteen thousand random samples from 119 US colleges. They concluded that there had been an increase in the use of marijuana and other illicit drugs on campuses across the United States in most student subgroups and all types of colleges. They said that their results may reflect the experiments done by middle and secondary school students, but most of the participants started regular use during college days and intervention efforts were needed at college level to stop the trend of using marijuana on the rise.

Harmful effects of Marijuana

Marijuana use is harmful to body and can be a substance that has the tendency to develop addiction to. According to Larsen et al (2013) there is a relationship between marijuana users and lifetime gamblers. Many families are negatively affected by marijuana use, even those with children in them. If Marijuana is regularly used during teenage years and young adult life, then it can have unfavorable effects. The most apparent negative effects of health include motor vehicle crashes, respiratory function defects, cardiovascular diseases and last but certainly not the least, mental and psychological health defects (Hall and Degenhardt, 2009).  Motor vehicle crashes have been linked with the use of marijuana and has been researched on many times. Li et al (2012) studied nine epidemiologic studies in the past two decades and concluded in their study that the use of marijuana by drivers notably increased the risk of being involved in motor vehicle crashes. The NIH also confirms that marijuana use ‘seriously impairs judgment and motor coordination, marijuana also contributes to accidents while driving’. Analysis from various studies shows that marijuana use increases the risk of being in an accident by two times and the combination of the drug with alcohol is a really bad case with reference to driving impairment.

Marijuana has an effect on life and mental abilities, and if used for prolonged time it can even cause long term damage. Research shows that marijuana can affect a person’s daily life activities, and regular drug users suffer from conditions like depression, poor mental and physical health. It’s observed that marijuana may even be linked to ‘dropping out from school’ (NIH). Dougherty et al (2013) tested all behavioral and cognitive areas of marijuana users and concluded that the domain most affected was that of short term memory recall and being sensitive to the situations around them.

Motivational factors for students

The three factors that can motivate college students to not use marijuana would be to show the link between results in academics and drug use, second, the use of drugs to be portrayed as a factor that can affect social life in a negative manner, and third, personal health to suffer with use of the drug.

All these factors need to be introduced through the institution and if a program is developed nationally that could be circulated in all colleges, especially those that show in research analysis a high level of incidents related to marijuana use.

Motivational Interviewing skills to use

The two skills that can be mostly used in dealing with the subjects of this intervention would be guiding and informing. The group concentrated here is that of college students who are young, at an age where responsibility is still becoming part of their behavior and using it as a habit is yet to fully develop. However, college students are adults and very capable of understanding the harmful effects of drug use like marijuana on their health. The use of the skill of ‘informing’ would be the most important in this health behavior change. The information part can be used as part of orientation at the college, and maybe intertwined into the enticing freedom that these young adults are keen to experience.

Following would be a skill that can be applied as well. When interviewing participants, the therapist could consider the pressure that the students feel when they are introduced to a new environment, new people and most of all the lack of family support. These maybe factors driving them to use marijuana. The stress of being in a ‘new place among new people’ maybe causing the users to use the drug. In such cases following maybe a key skill since then the users may be able to explain the actual motivators that makes them decide to use the drug. According to Byrne and Mazanov (1999) the relation between stress and use of alcohol or drugs among teenagers is well established. The use of drugs is much stronger than alcohol and more in girls than boys.

The skill of directing would be useful when dealing with a younger group of students, especially those who are just entering the college. Since these are students who wouldn’t have much experience with pressures of the institution so the skill of following may not useful here. However, directing would help and if combined with the motivational factors like popularity, negative psychological health that results in poor grades and safety, security. This would be an appealing factor for youth that is feeling detached from family as well.

Conclusion

Use of marijuana is a common negative health behavior seen among college students and it has effects on health that can be very damaging to the mental health and considering external factors also. Interventions can be made to stop this negative health behavior that can useful if done by using the proper motivational interviewing skills and with use of motivational factors that appeal to college students strongly.

References:-

Byrne, D. G., & Mazanov, J. (1999). Sources of adolescent stress, smoking and the use of other drugs. Stress and Health, 15(4), 215-227.

Dougherty, D. M., Mathias, C. W., Dawes, M. A., Furr, R. M., Charles, N. E., Liguori, A., ... & Acheson, A. (2013). Impulsivity, attention, memory, and decision-making among adolescent marijuana users. Psychopharmacology, 1-13.

Hall, W., & Degenhardt, L. (2009). Adverse health effects of non-medical cannabis use. The Lancet, 374(9698), 1383-1391.

Gledhill‐Hoyt, J., Lee, H., Strote, J., & Wechsler, H. (2000). Increased use of marijuana and other illicit drugs at US colleges in the 1990s: results of three national surveys. Addiction, 95(11), 1655-1667.

Larsen, C. V. L., Curtis, T., & Bjerregaard, P. (2013). Harmful alcohol use and frequent use of marijuana among lifetime problem gamblers and the prevalence of cross-addictive behaviour among Greenland Inuit: evidence from the cross-sectional Inuit health in transition Greenland survey 2006–2010. International journal of circumpolar health, 72.

Li, M. C., Brady, J. E., DiMaggio, C. J., Lusardi, A. R., Tzong, K. Y., & Li, G. (2012). Marijuana use and motor vehicle crashes. Epidemiologic Reviews,34(1), 65-72.

HIV Music Therapy

HIV MUSIC THERAPY

By

Aysha Siddiqui

Psychoneuroimmunology- Dr. Debra Wilson

Walden University

Description of cells involved in the Human Immune deficiency virus (HIV)

The National Institute of Allergy and Infectious diseases (NIAID, part of the NIH) describes that HIV infection that is not being treated destroys a patient’s immune system by killing infection fighting cells. The process is when HIV infections trigger a signal to an infection fighting cell to die. This information, according to NIAID is more recent and has explained a lot of questions of how to preserve the immune system of HIV patients. HIV inserts its gene into the cellular DNA and through other composite processes replicates the infection fighting immune cells called CD+T cells (NIAID). Macchia et al. (1993) write similarly about the cells involved in the HIV patients system and explain that infection of CD4+T cells result from HIV. This process causes severe dysfunction of cellular immunity but at the same time also results in ‘polyclonal activation of B-cells’ leading to ‘hypergammaglobulinaemia’ (elevated levels of gamma globulin) and B-cell malignancies. Some research shows that Dendritic cells (DC) play an important part in the initial infection and cell to cell transmission process in HIV-1 infections (Coleman, Gelais, Wu, 2013).

Cognitive/behavioral intervention (CBT); Music therapy

Bruscia (1998) writes that the very definition of ‘music therapy’ actually sets boundaries for what purposes can this therapy be used and how effective it can be. Bruscia (1998) adds that the National Institute of Music Therapy (NAMT) defines music therapy as ‘the use of music with the aim to accomplish therapeutic aims; the restoration, maintenance and improvement of physical and mental health’. The definition, according to Bruscia (1998) is ‘music therapy is a systematic process of intervention where in the therapist helps the client to promote health using musical experiences…..’. In this definition the author emphasizes that music therapy has to be a ‘systematic’ intervention, something that would be crucial for using is for HIV patients as well.

An interesting study is conducted by Stephens, Braithwaite, Taylor (1998) on finding effective and preventive techniques for HIV among young African American (AA) population. The authors argue that hip hop music is popular among this population and can be used as a very effective tool to achieve the goal of prevention as well as therapy for young people who are at a higher risk. This study is added in this discussion in light of the fact that AA populations maybe at higher risk of getting HIV.  Some researchers believe that music is part of art therapy and they are aimed at letting the patients express some extraordinary and unique thoughts as these people are aware that they will die (Aldridge, 1993). Music therapy in that  case can be a useful tool for further research as well.

 Music therapy Modes for HIV treatment

According to Cordobés (1997) music therapy can used in various forms for HIV patients and benefits can be multiple as well. Their study used the activity of ‘group song writing’ as a CBT for HIV patients and used two control groups of group songwriting plus group games playing. They also had a third group that did not go through any kind of CBT activity. The results showed that more emotions were expressed in song writing activity and there is evidence that songwriting can be used for clinical usefulness. The study also concludes that song writing activity could be analyzed to be useful in increasing social support.

        It is appealing to note that music therapy is a technique that is diverse in cultures, regions and unlike many other techniques it has been used since ancient times to improve health. Wainberg et al. (2007) write that patients with mental illnesses are at the highest risk for HIV in Brazil, and no techniques have been as such established for prevention. They conclude that music therapy CBT are one of the best ways for prevention and treatment of HIV patients in Brazil as their culture thrives on music, dance and festivities. Hanser  (2009) confirmed the use of music therapy as part of ‘modern. Integrative treatment’ for HIV being beneficial in the same manner as was Ayurvedic medicines in ancient times in Chinese cultures.

References

Aldridge, D. (1993). Hope, meaning and the creative arts therapies in the treatment of AIDS. The Arts in psychotherapy, 20(4), 285-297.

Bruscia, K. E. (1998). Defining music therapy. Barcelona Publishers.

Coleman, C. M., Gelais, C. S., & Wu, L. (2013). Cellular and viral mechanisms of HIV-1 transmission mediated by dendritic cells. In HIV Interactions with Dendritic Cells (pp. 109-130). Springer New York.

Cordobés, T. K. (1997). Group songwriting as a method for developing group cohesion for HIV-seropositive adult patients with depression. Journal of Music Therapy, 34(1), 46-67.

Hanser, S. B. (2009). From Ancient to Integrative Medicine Models for Music Therapy. Music and Medicine, 1(2), 87-96.

Macchia, D., Almerigogna, F., Parronchi, P., Ravina, A., Maggi, E., & Romagnani, S. (1993). Membrane tumour necrosis factor-α is involved in the polyclonal B-cell activation induced by HIV-infected human T cells.

NIH scientists discover how HIV kills immune cells, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. Retrieved from Doi: http://www.niaid.nih.gov/news/newsreleases/2013/Pages/HIVkillscells.aspx

Stephens, T., Braithwaite, R. L., & Taylor, S. E. (1998). Model for using hip-hop music for small group HIV/AIDS prevention counseling with African American adolescents and young adults. Patient Education and Counseling,35(2), 127-137.

Wainberg, M. L., McKinnon, K., Mattos, P. E., Pinto, D., Mann, C. G., de Oliveira, C. S. D. S & Cournos, F. (2007). A model for adapting evidence-based behavioral interventions to a new culture: HIV prevention for psychiatric patients in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. AIDS and Behavior, 11(6), 872-883.

Stress Coping among COPD patients

Stress coping strategies for refugee population suffering from Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD).

By Aysha Siddiqui

Stress and Coping, PSYC 6748,

Walden University

Abstract

Chronic obstructive Pulmonary Disorder (COPD) is a lung disease that can make breathing difficult. COPD is a common health condition found among refugees population who are living without access to quality health care, medicines and treatment facilities. This population requires specific coping strategies for the stress induced by the COPD. This paper reviews stress coping strategies for COPD suffering patients who are refugees, effective and ineffective strategies. It suggests alternate coping strategies for ineffective coping techniques for COPD.  

Common stress coping strategy for refugees suffering from COPD

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder (COPD) is a lung disease that blocks the airflow making it difficult to breathe (MyoClinic.com). Yaman et al (2002) conducted a study on health problems among UN refugees center in Turkey, Ankara. The results of their study revealed that infectious diseases like COPD were the most common among this population. Due to declined health care, lack of diagnosis and past living conditions, refugee population is at very high risk for developing infectious diseases including COPD. Research shows that patients suffering from COPD can face stress and may need specific stress coping techniques to deal with this stress.

Effective coping strategies

a)      Biology focused strategy

An effective biology focused coping strategy for patients with COPD ‘oxygen therapy’. Oxygen therapy is the process of increasing the supply of oxygen to the lungs with help of a face mask, cylinder and tube that carries oxygen to the mask. This type of therapy usually helps increase activity and function better (National Institute of Health, NIH). Borak et al (1996) conducted a study on the psychological status of patients after one year of effective oxygen therapy. Results showed that before therapy patients had ‘depressed mood self-esteem with narrow interests, signs of anxiety, mental stress and depression’. There was a decline in these conditions after an year of oxygen therapy.

b)      Emotion focused strategy

Psychotherapy is an effective coping technique for patients suffering from COPD in living conditions of refugees or like refugees (which means lack of access to instant health care). Eiser et al (1997) found that anxiety is very common among patients of COPD and the effects of psycho therapy offered to these patients. After six sessions of group psycho therapy results showed improvement in tolerating physical activity without feeling anxious or worried.

c)      Problem focused strategy

Educating the patients about their condition of health and the stress related to the condition is an effective problem focused strategy. The methods would include providing printed material with simple instructions on how to handle stress and what kind of support to build around them.

Ineffective coping strategy for dealing stress faced by COPD sufferers

a)      Problem focused

Since we are considering refugee population then problem focused techniques could be challenging in taking effect. One problem focused technique that may not be effective would be treating the patients for depression and not stress. There is always a very thin line between the two and there is a close connection between depression and stress. If patients suffering from COPD are actually getting depressed maybe due to their illness or even because of the medication, then getting that under control could be hard in a refugee population. To make this technique effective it would be suggested to engage internal medicine doctors along with personality assessment specialists also.

b)      Biology focused

Biology focused coping techniques include a behavior change to reduce the physiological changes that happen when stress takes place (Laureate education, 2012). An ineffective technique in case of refugee with COPD could be altering lifestyle and eating habits. This is because the living conditions of refugees are compromised and they are usually looking at their survival. Inclusion of organizations, non-profits or other such groups could help with making this technique effective. Healthy eating and better sleep is an example of biology focused technique that could be effective as well with proper support. 

c)      Emotion focused

This may include being given psychological support by therapists who are not properly qualified to help a population who is suffering from a chronic disease as well as are refugees. Refugees are going through the stress of handling the COPD as well being uprooted from their homes. If patients have families, their age and in what conditions they left home can all play a role in the stress they are facing. To make this coping technique effective, it would be best to engage therapists or social workers who have had training in dealing with refugee population. Therapists could be given a short training course as well to handle these patients.

References

National Institute of Health (NIH), ‘What is Oxygen therapy?’

Borak, J., Sliwiński, P., Tobiasz, M., Gorecka, D., & Zieliński, J. (1996). Psychological status of COPD patients before and after one year of long-term oxygen therapy. Monaldi archives for chest disease, 51(1), 7.

Eiser, N., West, C., Evans, S., Jeffers, A., & Quirk, F. (1997). Effects of psychotherapy in moderately severe COPD: a pilot study. European Respiratory Journal, 10(7), 1581-1584.

Yaman, H., Kut, A., Yaman, A., & Ungan, M. (2002). Health problems among UN refugees at a family medical centre in Ankara, Turkey. Scandinavian journal of primary health care, 20(2), 85-87.

Data cleaning meaning 'proofreading'

Data cleaning means the ‘proofreading’ of data to eliminate errors and coding (techniques to organize raw data) inconsistencies, according to Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias (2009). Data cleaning, also known as data cleaning is an integral part of data processing that should take place before an analysis of the data collected. Computers perform the function of data cleaning mostly now with the development of efficient software (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2009). Missing data can be in many forms like response bias, careless response or no response. According to Meade & Craig (2012), internet surveys, especially in cases of ‘obligatory participation’ can result in data that’s quality can be a concern. They report that ‘careless responses’ can be controlled by using identified rather than anonymous responses.

Missing data is a common concern with multivariate studies, as reported by Little (1988) and can lead to a questions if it is data ‘missing completely at random’ (MCAR) or if it’s related to a some variables. Little (1998) suggests that if we compare the value of means for each variable between groups then we may be able to assess if it is MCAR or not. Schafer & Olsen (1998) highlight the possibility of missing data in a multivariate study as well. They further add that ‘new computational algorithms and software’ have given the ability to researchers to create proper imputations multivariate studies. Their study reports ‘multiple imputation’ technique that combine estimates with m> plausible values. Bourque & Clark (1992) write an interesting point that ‘data preparation more of an ‘art when compared to science of hypothesis testing’

One example of data cleaning is dealing with outliers (these are values or data points considered to be far outside norm of a variable) that have been defined by some researchers as values that deviate so much that they arouse suspicion (Osborne & Overbay, 2012). Outliers can have feverish effects on data analysis and can be handled by either by eliminating if evaluated as an error in data or by observing, looking at the original responses (Osborne & Overbay, 2012).

Hypothesis testing is directly connected to data analysis (Bourque & Clark, 1992). In the rush of testing the hypothesis researchers usually do an incomplete job of data analysis and then repeatedly process data to bring it into usable form. In our research study, our second hypothesis states that individuals who grow up in a cross cultural home with immigrant parents experience lesser success in life compared to their peers. To illustrate this relationship

                                                                            References

Bourque, L. B., & Clark, V. (1992). Processing data: The survey example (No. 85). Sage.

Frankfort-Nachmias, C., & Nachmias, D. (2008). Research methods in the social sciences (7th ed.). New York: Worth.

Little, R. J. (1988). A test of missing completely at random for multivariate data with missing values. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 83(404), 1198-1202.

Meade, A. W., & Craig, S. B. (2012). Identifying careless responses in survey data. Psychological methods, 17(3), 437.

Osborne, J. W., & Overbay, A. (2012). Best practices in data cleaning. Sage.

Schafer, J. L., & Olsen, M. K. (1998). Multiple imputation for multivariate missing-data problems: A data analyst's perspective. Multivariate behavioral research, 33(4), 545-571.

Divisions of Brain that interest research psychologists

Divisions of Brain that interest research psychologists

By

Aysha Siddiqui.

Biopsychology,

Walden University

Introduction

The connection between brain and behavior has been long established by research. Though some psychologists believed until few years back that behavior should be studied in its own individuality (Catania & Gill, 1964), the importance of understanding the functions of the brain to understand the basis of behavior is well established.  Rachel Adelson (American Psychological Association, APA, 2002) writes that only by understanding the connection between different parts of the brain and their exact function that we can reach to the roots of many behavioral health problems.

The human brain is one of the most massive, intricate and appealing part of the body that relates to behavior. Several neurons in the brain produce a chemical reaction as a result of electrical signals that passes between them and this results in behavior (Breedlove & Watson, 2013). However, learning about the behavioral problems and how the brain functions around those behavioral health issues has more depth than this simple function of neurons. Research psychologists are the link between understanding the function of the brain, its structure and the important role it plays in behavior.

    Divisions of brain research psychologists are interested in

·         Neurons and Neurophysiology

Research psychologist would mainly be interested in those structures, functions of the brain that have been found to control, affect and cause behavior, emotions and feelings. According to LeDoux (1998) emotions are the result of the biological activity of the nervous system and ‘emotional brain’ is what the psychologists must study. The chemical exchange and transmission of electric sparks between neurons among many other perplexing things also is the reason for the emotions. In that way the study of the almost 10 billion neurons and the activity that surrounds them has to be the primary division of brain that research psychologists would be interested in.

·         Cerebral Cortex -Frontal, partial, occipital and temporal lobes)

Byrnes (2001) makes a point about the importance of learning the brain functions by the words Neisser (1967) that the brain for the psychologists is like the computer for a man who wants to learn how to ‘use’ the software and not what the hardware is made of. Same way the psychologists try to understand the reason for cognitive behavior rather than how it occurs. The researchers, however play a slightly different role who try to understand the reason for the behavior and actions. The Cerebral cortex is the uppermost structure of the brain (Byrnes, 2001) that’s responsible for movement, sensory information (hearing, visual etc.) and experiences retention like memory and learning. From educators who are involved in research to PTSD researchers and the research psychologists this division of the brain would be of importance and interest.

·         Neuroimaging techniques

As important it is for research psychologists to understand the various divisions of the brain, it is also of significance for them to understand that updated technology or methods used for looking at the function, structure of the brain. This includes all the different kinds of technology and methods used for obtaining the brain images. Other than Computed Tomography (CT) and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) research psychologists would benefit from the use of electroencephalogram (EEG) which tracks the electrical activity of the brain (Brynes, 2001). EEG has been beneficial in tracking.

·         Brain networks

Driver et al (2010) highlight in their study the extensive brain networks maybe underlying the cognition and spatial attention, so they should be studied in detail with help of imaging techniques by the researchers of behavior. They also imply on the importance of understanding the damaged brain due to injury or disability for research psychologist. The emphasis of Driver et al (2010) is especially on the frontal cortex, parietal cortex and connection to modulate sensory areas.

Divisions of brain of my interest

I am very interested in the development of brain and how young children’s thinking, behavior differs from adults. The minds of children are untainted by many things of the society unlike adults except some unfortunate little ones who have to face physical or mental trauma at a young age as well. I am appealed by the idea of helping young children who face traumas and suffer from PTSD and also by the less fortunate in this world who don’t have access to health care easily. Perry et al (1995) study reveals that a child’s brain differs in development from an adult and if a child faces any kind of emotional or mental trauma then the cues that the central nervous system receives from the environment, they are disrupted. A developing brain is highly dependent on the sets of the environment and ‘micro environmental cues’.

References

Byrnes, J. P. (2001). Minds, brains, and learning: understanding the psychological and educational relevance of neuroscientific research. Guilford Press.

Catania, A. C., & Gill, C. A. (1964). Inhibition and behavioral contrast. .Psychonomic Science.

Driver, J., Blankenburg, F., Bestmann, S., & Ruff, C. C. (2010). New approaches to the study of human brain networks underlying spatial attention and related processes. Experimental Brain Research, 206(2), 153-162.

LeDoux, J. (1998). The emotional brain: The mysterious underpinnings of emotional life. SimonandSchuster. com.

Perry, B. D., Pollard, R. A., Blakley, T. L., Baker, W. L., & Vigilante, D. (1995). Childhood trauma, the neurobiology of adaptation, and use dependent development of the brain? Infant Mental Health Journal, 16(4), 271-291.

Rachel Adelson (2002) Food for thought. American Psychological Association. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/monitor/julaug02/food.aspx

Facial feedback:Ten articles from Walden Library

Biopsychology of emotions; the facial feedback hypothesis of emotional experience

By

Aysha Siddiqui

Walden University

Abstract

This paper reviews ten articles from the Walden Library related to the facial feedback hypothesis of emotional experience. The peer reviewed articles range in topic and look at research on facial expression from various angles. The facial expression hypothesis of emotional experience research is reviewed in reference to gender specifics, age variations, disease or personality disorders and learning abilities. The paper concludes after we integrate our review of past research on facial feedback we find scope for further research in facial feedback hypothesis that may differ with subject to culture and lifestyle.

Introduction

Facial feedback hypothesis of emotional expression is the concept that facial expressions have a connection to emotions and provide the key to feelings (Azar, 2000). The face is one of the most affluent sources of communicating emotional and social information. It is also capable of spawning many expressions with all the muscles it is equipped with (Senechel et al, 2013). The facial feedback theory is an important part of many modern theories of emotions. The study of facial expression of emotion has also been focused on with theoretical controversy and pragmatic research. Ekman (1993) reviews if facial expressions really depict emotions and if they are culturally, universally specific.

Facial expression as an indication of emotions and feelings is not an uncommon phenomenon. In daily life to judge a person’s thoughts and feelings in connection with their facial expression is ordinary practice. During the 2012 Olympics, artistic gymnast Makayla Maroney became famous for her athletic abilities. She also got renowned for a facial expression that she exhibited when awarded a silver medal (Sénéchal et al, 2013). The idea more interesting than Makayla’s expression was how different observers interpreted her facial expression with varying meanings.

Ten articles on facial feedback hypothesis from Walden library

1. ‘Comparison of three theories relating facial expressiveness to blood pressure in male and female undergraduates’ –Davidson et al, 1994.

This article examines differing predictions of how emotional expressions and blood pressure are related. For this study spontaneous positive and negative facial expressions were measured for 148 male and female undergraduates. The resting systolic blood pressure (SBP), and reactive SBP were also accounted. Keeping in line with the discharge theory of emotions (few expressions will predict higher baseline SBP) results differed for men. On the other hand, women had an imbalance for negative and positive expressions in line with the mismatch theory.

2. Impaired recognition of prosody and subtle emotional facial expressions in Parkinson's disease.

By

Buxton, Sharon L.; MacDonald, Lorraine; Tippett, Lynette J. Behavioral Neuroscience, Vol 127(2), Apr 2013, 193-203. doi: 10.1037/a0032013

Buxton et al (2013) introduce their study with the importance of correct recognition of emotional facial expressions. For a healthy and accurate social interaction, relationships it is important that the emotional expressions are accurately recognized. Patients suffering from Parkinson’s disease (PD) have seen to misunderstand or not recognize the facial expressions of others but some conflicting results of the theory have been found also. This study examines this conflict and uses 30 individuals who suffer from PD for the experiment. Their results show that patients suffering from PD recognize facial expressions of happiness more accurately compared to other subtle emotions expressed. The study also concludes that medicated PD individuals perform better at expressions recognition as compared to non medicated PD individuals.

3. Facial emotional processing in HIV infection: Relation to neurocognitive and neuropsychiatric status.

By

Lane, Tammy A.; Moore, Danielle M.; Batchelor, Jennifer; Brew, Bruce J.; Cysique, Lucette A. Neuropsychology, Vol 26(6), Nov 2012, 713-722. doi: 10.1037/a0029964

The objective of this study is to examine facial emotional processing in HIV+ individuals and its relation to neuro cognitive performance, neuropsychiatric symptomatology and immune status. Participants included 85 HIV+ individuals (83 males, 2 females) and 25 same age HIV− individuals (22 males, 3 females). The used The University of Pennsylvania computerized neuropsychological facial emotion test battery, standardized neuropsychological testing, neurobehavioral questionnaires, a semi structured psychiatric interview. Results showed a slight difference for recognition of sadness, ability to distinguish between happiness and fear. It was also observed that HIV+ individuals with HIV-associated neuro cognitive disorder had abnormal emotional facial recognition and slower recognition of negative facial expressions. The study concludes that stable HIV+ individuals ‘show a mild level of emotional processing reduction that is dissociated from neuropsychiatric complaints’.

4. Recognition of facial expressions of mixed emotions in school-age children exposed to terrorism

by

Scrimin, Sara; Moscardino, Ughetta; Capello, Fabia; Altoè, Gianmarco; Axia, Giovanna Developmental Psychology, Vol 45(5), Sep 2009, 1341-1352.

doi: 10.1037/a0016689

This study aims at investigating the effects of terrorism on children’s ability to recognize emotions. The method used was to study the facial expressions of children with mean age 11 years old after exposure to terrorist attack. A sample of 101 exposed and 102 non exposed children, balanced for age and gender were assessed. The assessment lasted for 20 months after a terrorist attack in Beslan, Russia. The results showed that the exposed children group was able to recognize ‘mixed emotion facial stimuli’ more than the unexposed children group. Scrimin et al concluded that exposed children labeled facial expression of anger and sadness more correctly than unexposed children.

5. The impact of facial emotional expressions on behavioral tendencies in women and men.

By

Seidel, Eva-Maria; Habel, Ute; Kirschner, Michaela; Gur, Ruben C.; Derntl, Birgit

Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, Vol 36(2), Apr 2010, 500-507. doi:10.1037/a0018169

Seidel et al start their article with an emphasis on emotional faces used as a means to communicate the emotional state of a person. They add that emotional faces sometimes also convey the behavioral intentions of an individual. The facial expressions can also affect the behavior of the perceiver then. This study compares the behavioral reactions of the perceiver to facial expressions of happiness, sadness, disgust and anger. 55 females and 49 males who were Caucasian and similar in age from Vienna University participated in the study. Participants viewed 24 colored photographs of Caucasian actors that showed evoked facial expressions of emotions. The results showed evidence that men and women react almost similarly but there are differences in reactions to male and female faces. This reaction may be influenced by the socialization process and cultural differences. Results also showed a pattern of reactive behavior to specific facial expressions like avoidance for anger, approach for sad and happy expression, withdrawal for disgust.

6. Happy mouth and sad eyes: Scanning emotional facial expressions.

By

Eisenbarth, Hedwig; Alpers, Georg W. Emotion, Vol 11(4), Aug 2011, 860-865.

doi: 10.1037/a0022758

For years eyes have been associated with emotional expression on the face. This study examines some specific regions of the face like the mouth and eyes that are considered vital in facial expression of emotions. The method involved eye tracking to monitor ‘scanning’ behavior of participants while they look at different facial expressions. Duration and location of fixations were recorded along with a dominance ratio (eyes and mouth to the rest of the face). The study concluded that there is a relation between eyes and mouth in emotional decoding. The results also show that not all emotions are interpreted in not the same manner and confirm the relevance between facial expressions of emotions.

7. Categorical perception of emotional facial expressions does not require lexical categories.

By

Sauter, Disa A.; LeGuen, Oliver; Haun, Daniel B. M. Emotion, Vol 11(6), Dec 2011, 1479-1483.  doi: 10.1037/a0025336

We know that our perception of others' emotional signals depend on the language we speak. This articles questions if it is the language or is it our perception regardless of language and culture? This article is more an investigation into the perception of emotions among various language groups. The process reveals that emotions are perceived on the basis of a biological process and not on lexical (related to a particular language) distinctions.

8. Age-related decrease in recognition of emotional facial and prosodic expressions.

By

Lambrecht, Lena; Kreifelts, Benjamin; Wildgruber, Dirk. Emotion, Vol 12(3), Jun 2012, 529-539. doi: 10.1037/a0026827

This article starts with highlighting how crucial is the ability to recognize nonverbal emotional signals for successful social communication at any age. Prior studies have shown connection between age and emotion recognition with a prosodic approach. This study aimed at using more natural settings by presenting stimuli under auditory, visual and audiovisual conditions. 44 mean and 40 women within the age range of 20-70 years were tested for their abilities to recognize non verbal emotions. The results showed a decline in age related abilities to recognize emotions independent of the kind of stimuli presented. The results suggest a change in cognitive abilities to understand emotions that go beyond the age related abilities.

9. Identification of emotional facial expressions following recovery from depression.

By

LeMoult, Joelle; Joormann, Jutta; Sherdell, Lindsey; Wright, Yamanda; Gotlib, Ian H.

Journal of Abnormal Psychology, Vol 118(4), Nov 2009, 828-833. doi:10.1037/a0016944

This study investigated the identification of facial expressions of emotion in currently non depressed participants. These participants have however, had a history of recurrent depressive by episodes (recurrent major depression; RMD) and never-depressed control participants (CTL). The participants were presented with faces with changing expressions from neutral to full intensity. Results were collected by the intensity of the expression correctly identified by the participant. There were no major group differences for sad and angry expressions, but CTL participants were able to identify expressions at a lower intensity compared to the RMD participants. The study concluded that despite being treated RMD participants had some bias towards facial expressions.

10. Gender differences in implicit and explicit processing of emotional facial expressions as revealed by event-related theta synchronization.

By

Knyazev, Gennady G.; Slobodskoj-Plusnin, Jaroslav Y.; Bocharov, Andrey V. Emotion, Vol 10(5), Oct 2010, 678-687. doi: 10.1037/a0019175

This articles starts with the hypothesis that women are better interpreters of facial expressions as compared to men. It talks about facial expression of emotions as early as birth and infancy when a baby is unable to verbalize his emotions, and facial expressions are the key to what he is feelings. Facial expression of emotions is processed in two modes that are differently present in the conscious mind. These modes can be understood in connection with ‘event-related electroencephalogram’ (ERT) as a marker of facial expression processing. The ERT synchronization is more pronounced in the early processing stage compared to explicit processing. Early processing is more pronounced in men as compared to women and may be connected to differences in social behavior.

Further research

 I found articles and research on facial feedback hypothesis on emotional expression that account for age, gender and disease. I did not find enough literature however that investigates facial expression of emotions distinction in reference to culture. There was one article by Sauter et al (2011) on lexical distinctions not effecting facial expression recognition. Scope for further research is vast if facial feedback of emotional expression is investigated in different cultures and parts of the work. This can vary with how different cultures express, handle or understand happiness, anger, disgust and other basic emotions.

Another aspect of the topic is the lifestyle and prior training. A marine or veteran may have a controlled facial feedback of emotional expression as compared to a school teacher of young kids. Further research can be conducted in this range as well.

References

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Eisenbarth, H., & Alpers, G. W. (2011). Happy mouth and sad eyes: Scanning emotional facial expressions. Emotion, 11(4), 860.

Knyazev, G. G., Slobodskoj-Plusnin, J. Y., & Bocharov, A. V. (2010). Gender differences in implicit and explicit processing of emotional facial expressions as revealed by event-related theta synchronization. Emotion, 10(5), 678.

Lambrecht, L., Kreifelts, B., & Wildgruber, D. (2012). Age-related decrease in recognition of emotional facial and prosodic expressions. Emotion, 12(3), 529.

 Lane, T. A., Moore, D. M., Batchelor, J., Brew, B. J., & Cysique, L. A. (2012). Facial emotional processing in HIV infection: Relation to Neurocognitive and neuropsychiatric status. Neuropsychology, 26(6), 713.

LeMoult, J., Joormann, J., Sherdell, L., Wright, Y., & Gotlib, I. H. (2009). Identification of emotional facial expressions following recovery from depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 118(4), 828.

Sauter, D. A., LeGuen, O., & Haun, D. (2011). Categorical perception of emotional facial expressions does not require lexical categories. Emotion,11(6), 1479.

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