Family influences on children, adolescent's health

Children and adolescent spend about 32 hours a week in school, which is a substantial amount of time. Peer pressure, academic struggles and daily stress can be associated with what the children experience at school. Recently another major connection established between influences of school and life of students is of nutrition, health and food (Wechsler et al, 2000). Major steps are being taken by the government, private non-profits and by parents to change the way we feed our children at school.

In my opinion, however a stronger impact on a child or adolescent’s diet and exercise is of the family. Golan et al (1998) conducted a study to compare the traditional approach of parent being the focus for change in eating health habits compared to when children are the focus of change. Their results showed that parents are the exclusive agents when aiming to control obesity among children. According to their study results the dropout rate is higher among all other methods of weight loss among adolescents, except when parents were the main source of change. Research has shown significantly the role of parents in influencing nutritional behavior of children and adolescents (Scaglioni et al 2008). Parents are the role models for children and create an environment that promotes healthy eating behavior. Scaglioni et al (2008) also highlight that a positive and healthy home environment (happy parents, strong family system and values) can also play a part in developing a positive attitude towards life, food, friends and other things in life.

Past research establishes a strong connection between media indulgence and a child, adolescent’s health in more than one way (Marshall et al 2004). There is statistical evidence of an effect of television viewing on obesity, lack of physical activity and body fatness among children. According to American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) American children and adolescents spend on an average 4 hours a day on media and more than the time they spend on any other activity (Barkin et al, 2006). Most of television viewing, media exposure that relates to lack of physical activity is experienced not at school but at home and among family. To limit television time and promote hobbies that promote physical activity would be an effective strategy. Parental rules in limiting screen time and getting engaged in physical activity has shown results in the past and has been suggested as an effective strategy to promote good health among children, adolescents ( Carlson et al, 2010).

Since we established that parents can play a vital role in nutritional and physical health of children, another effective strategy would the education of parents on relevant topics. This strategy could be a nip in the bud for many other related factors like taking lunch from home, highlighting the importance of health as a family and understanding the nutritional needs of the children. Giving nutritional education to parents can promote parental health, support for their kids and positive eating behaviors that will last longer (Crockett et al, 1988).

References

Barkin, S., Ip, E., Richardson, I., Klinepeter, S., Finch, S., & Krcmar, M. (2006). Parental media mediation styles for children aged 2 to 11 years.Archives of pediatrics & adolescent medicine, 160(4), 395-401.

Carlson, S. A., Fulton, J. E., Lee, S. M., Foley, J. T., Heitzler, C., & Huhman, M. (2010). Influence of limit-setting and participation in physical activity on youth screen time. Pediatrics, 126(1), e89-e96.

Crockett, S. J., Mullis, R. M., & Perry, C. L. (1988). Parent nutrition education: a conceptual model. Journal of school health, 58(2), 53-57.

Golan, M., Weizman, A., Apter, A., & Fainaru, M. (1998). Parents as the exclusive agents of change in the treatment of childhood obesity. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 67(6), 1130-1135.

Marshall, S. J., Biddle, S. J., Gorely, T., Cameron, N., & Murdey, I. (2004). Relationships between media use, body fatness and physical activity in children and youth: a meta-analysis. International journal of obesity, 28(10), 1238-1246.

Scaglioni, S., Salvioni, M., & Galimberti, C. (2008). Influence of parental attitudes in the development of children eating behaviour. British Journal of Nutrition, 99(S1), S22-S25.

Wechsler, H., Devereaux, R. S., Davis, M., & Collins, J. (2000). Using the school environment to promote physical activity and healthy eating. Preventive Medicine, 31(2), S121-S137.

Mental disorders and substance abuse disorder among adolescents

Depression, anxiety, bipolar disorder and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) are mental disorders reported among adults, children and adolescents. In the recent years, however, there have been reports of an increase in numbers of these disorders among children (OAS, 2008, learning resources).

Before I discuss one of these disorders in connection with substance abuse, I would like to add that diagnosis of each of these disorders among children maybe especially hard. This is due to the similarity of symptoms and misdiagnosis is a possibility which can be harmful. Webb (2005) reports that many children are being ‘misdiagnosed’ for ADHD, Bipolar, Asperger’s disease when they are actually very creative and ‘gifted’ children. Their study examines that many times diagnosis are made without understanding the background or other indirectly related factors that maybe causing behavior that’s not normal. Webb (2005) gives an appealing approach that most of the time these children are labeled as having a possible mental disorder if they show behavior that maybe unacceptable to their environment. If the environment was removed from the equation then the same children may be dealt with, educated and viewed as normal kids.

I find this view point quiet intriguing, especially since diagnosis of disorders like ADHD, ADD and other mental disorders in children has always been in question. Prescription of medication and their side effects is another heart breaking aspect. Sometimes, the children need the meds and function better with medication, but misdiagnosis is not rare as well.

Bipolar disorder is defined as ‘a mood disorder characterized by alternating periods of depression and mania’ by the American Psychological Association (APA). It is a serious mental illness in which ‘common emotions’ become intense and can be unpredictable. A person suffering from bipolar can go from being extremely happy to being in a state of melancholy, sadness that can last up to weeks. Diagnosis of Bipolar in children takes careful understanding and observation of symptoms. According to APA Bipolar in children and adolescents is controversial and the stakes are high.

Substance abuse among adolescents is often associated with mental disorders. Wilens et al (1999) conducted a study on the connection between Bipolar disorder (BPD) and risk for substance abuse disorder (SUD). They conclude that adolescent BPD gives a higher risk to developing SUD compared to BPD onset in childhood. They highlight that an awareness of risks and effects of SUD among the adolescents maybe an effective way of preventing SUD.  

Some experiences and situation maybe triggers for developing SUD among adolescents who suffer from BPD. According to Afifi et al (2009) there is a close relation between parental divorce and lifetime mental disorders, substance abuse. Their study reports that children who suffer from child abuse or parental divorce are at a higher risk of developing mental illnesses and with same experiences as adolescents they are at higher risk for SUD. An emotionally stressful situation may trigger the possibility of adolescents to develop SUD. Examples of emotionally stressful instances are parental divorce or financial crisis, peer pressures, bullying, loss of a close friend (moving or misunderstanding) or break up from boy/girl friend. Academic pressure could also be a trigger for adolescents with BPD to develop SUD.

Research shows that loneliness from lack of strong familial relationships or absence of close friends can trigger symptoms of BPD and increase the risks of SUD (Rokach, 2002). To help adolescents reduce the risk of SUD development, family bonds can be created with cousins, grandparents and neighbors. This can be vitally helpful in case of single parents or families with one child. Friendships and health relationships with adults other than parents neutralizes loneliness and provides mental, emotional gymnastics that can benefit in many ways.

References

Afifi, T. O., Boman, J., Fleisher, W., & Sareen, J. (2009). The relationship between child abuse, parental divorce, and lifetime mental disorders and suicidality in a nationally representative adult sample. Child abuse & neglect,33(3), 139-147.

Rokach, A. (2002). Determinants of loneliness of young adult drug users. The Journal of psychology, 136(6), 613-630.

 Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Office of Applied Studies. (2008). The NSDUH report: Major depressive episode among youths aged 12 to 17 in the United States: 2004 to 2006. Rockville, MD: Author. Retrieved fromhttp://oas.samhsa.gov/2k8/youthDepress/youthDepress.cfm 

Webb, J. T. (Ed.). (2005). Misdiagnosis and dual diagnoses of gifted children and adults: ADHD, bipolar, OCD, Asperger's, depression, and other disorders. Great Potential Press, Inc.

Wilens, T. E., Biederman, J., Millstein, R. B., Wozniak, J., Hahesy, A. L., & Spencer, T. J. (1999). Risk for Substance Use Disorders in Youths With Child-and Adolescent‐Onset Bipolar Disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 38(6), 680-685.

How Cannabinoids aka Marijuana and Hashish affect the body?

How Cannabinoids aka Marijuana and Hashish affect the body?

Cannabinoids also known as Marijuana or Hashish can be administered by swallowing or smoking and they cause acute effects like relaxation, euphoria, slowed reaction time or anxiety, panic attacks (National Institute of Health, NIH, 2011). Marijuana is one of the most widely used illegal drugs today and can have varying effects from relaxation to hallucinations on its users (Breedlove & Watson, 2013). Continued use of Marijuana can lead to addiction, decline in cognitive abilities and like tobacco smoking, marijuana smoking can also cause respiratory diseases. Murray et al (2007) conclude in their study that adolescents who use marijuana are at a higher risk of developing psychosis but it’s not clear if adolescents with psychological issues are at a higher risk of being addicted to the drug.

Physiological Mechanisms of addiction to Cannabinoids

Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is the main active compound found in Cannabinoids and the one which the brain receptors react to. The brain has Cannabinoid receptors that intercede the effects of THC. These receptors are found in cerebral cortex, hippocampus and substantia nigra and areas like the brain stem show a few receptors. Sub groups of Cannabinoid receptors are CB1 and CB2. CB1 are found in the nervous system and CB2 are found in the immune system. CB1 are present in the central nervous system of the mammals in a unique manner and more than any other G protein related receptors and the highest level of presence is in motor control and hippocampus (Breivogel, 1998). The effects of Cannabinoids on the central nervous system correlate to the distribution of cannabinoid receptors in the brain and their activation of the specific ‘G-protein mediated signal’ as explained by Breivogel (1998).

Two ways knowledge of physiological mechanism can impact

The users of cannabinoids are mostly under the age of 25 and include teenagers as well who are not aware of the physiological long term effects of the drug (NIH). According to the NIH there was decline in the use of Marijuana or Cannabinoids in the late nineties and mid 2000’s, but since 2012 there has been significant increase in the use of these drugs among high school kids and adolescents. An awareness of the physiological effects of the drug on a young person’s brain and its damage in the long run could be an effective preventive measure to stop these numbers from rising. Many teenagers admit to being unaware of how exactly the drugs give them relaxation, euphoria and even the parents are clueless about the effects, the fact that their kids are smoking Marijuana or how it can lead to addiction (Walters, 2002). Knowing the physiology of the impact of the drug can be a beneficial to parents and youth.

Breedlove and Watson (2013) point out the importance of understanding the physiology of the effects of drugs for rehabilitation purposes. Family members or support groups are often times unaware of the physical stress on the body and reactions of the brain to withdrawal from the drug. Understanding the physiology can give a better perspective to the family and support groups of persons struggling with addiction, rehabilitation. It can increases the level of sympathy and patience among the support network.

References

Breivogel, C. S., & Childers, S. R. (1998). The functional neuroanatomy of brain cannabinoid receptors. Neurobiology of Disease, 5(6), 417-431.

Castle, D. J., & Murray, R. M. (Eds.). (2004). Marijuana and Madness: Psychiatry and Neurobiology. Cambridge University Press.

Commonly abused drugs, 2011. National Institute on Drug Abuse. Retrieved from http://www.drugabuse.gov/drugs-abuse/commonly-abused-drugs/commonly-abused-drugs-chart

Walters, J. (2002). The myth of ‘harmless’ marijuana. Washington Post. Washington, DC, 1, A25.

Research Designs Comparison: Strengths and Weaknesses

Research Designs Comparison: Strengths and Weaknesses

Aysha Siddiqui

Quantitative Reasoning & Analysis (RSCH - 6200Y - 2)

Burger, J. (2009). Replicating Milgram: Would people still obey today? 

Burger (2008) used a controlled experiment design for his experiment in which he replicated Stanley Milgram’s (1974) experiment. The original experiment by Milgram was conducted to understand the concept of obedience. In the replication of the experiment, many steps and tests were added to the original one to address all the ethical concerns.

The research design is a ‘one-shot case study’ in which the results are collected from a single group of at a single point of time. This is a kind of Pre experimental design which is mostly used when no other design is suitable for the study. These designs are weakest for internal and external validity (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2008).  The one shot case is also aimed at understanding a phenomenon that produced change in the past.

The strength of this design is the flexibility and ability of the researcher to conduct their study with a unique design. This design gives an option to a researcher to conduct a study though they were unable to fit their research design into the mould of other traditional designs.

Marques, S., & Lima, M. L. (2011). Living in grey areas: Industrial activity and psychological health. Journal of Environmental Psychology.

Marques & Lima (2011) clearly explain their choice of using the Quasi-experimental design to understand the affect of living in industrial areas on psychological health. Their hypothesis is that people living in industrial area have lower psychological health. The second goal of the study is to understand the relation between the ‘perception of living are as industrial and psychological health’.

The weakness of Quasi-experimental design is that it allows random selection but not random assignment (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2008) and this was the weakness in this study as well.

The strength of a Quasi- experimental design is that they allow researcher to use natural settings and in real life. This is the strength of the study done by Marques & Lima (2011) as well when they are able to use a sample of population living in ‘industrial areas’.

Recommend a quantitative design for your research plan.

The recommended quantitative design for my research plan is the Quasi-experimental design. This design allows random selection of sample but does not allow random assignment. Our research will use the ‘planned variation design’ which measure ‘the casual affects of systematically varied stimuli’ (Fraknfort-Machmias & Machmias, 2008). The rationale for using this experimental design is:

• Most important reason to use this design is because we are testing the variance in Intelligence Quotient (IQ) of adolescents subject to their exposure to an activity.

Planned variation allows us to measure casual effects over a period of time, and this is crucial in our research. We need to monitor the time consumed by the kids in the activity for at least six months, and then see it’s affects on their IQ.

• Past literature shows the use of this design in studies similar to our research study. Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias (2008) give the example of a policy- relevant study conducted to check the affects of Head Start Planned Variation (HSPV) on the development of academic skills among low income families.

• Our research will aim to distribute important variables equally among the group of children chosen. Our first groups will be kids, ages 7-11, who have spent in the past and shown interest in playing any kind of ‘organized’ sports. The second group will be the same age children who have exposure to playing video games (this includes time spent on iPad, computer, Xbox, play station etc.).

• Planned variation design is suitable mainly also because time is of essence here as our dependant variable is IQ of the children. A review of past literature and theories shows that children IQ changes over time (Flynn, 1998). This may be due to some relevant factors that we plan to keep as control variables.

For the designs that you did not choose, state why each one is not appropriate for your research questions, hypotheses, and variables.

1. Classical Experiment Design

Frankfor-Nachmias and Nachmias (2008) defined classical experiment design in which there two comparable groups: an experimental and a control group. The experimental group is equivalent to the control group, except the difference of exposure to the independent variable. The experimental group is exposed to the variable and control group is not. Pre test and post test measurement are taken of both groups and the data is compared.

In our study we do make a comparison, but there is not an experiment or control group. We do not have two separate groups of sample based on a treatment or independent variable exposure.

The comparison of two groups is based upon exposure to the independent variable in the past and there are two separate kinds of independent variables.

2. Cross sectional- Not looking for opinions of people with or without control variables

Cross sectional design is though the most popular design used by social scientists (Frankfor-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2008) but it is not suitable for our research. This design often uses survey research to collect information like past experiences, backgrounds and attitudes. In most cross sectional studies researchers are trying to find a relation between two variables. 

In our research we are interested in understanding the effects of independent variables, choice of free time activity, on the dependant variable which is the IQ of the children. Collection of data from the past will include test scores and time spent in either sports or playing games. Our research is not aimed at understand the opinions or background effects on present conditions.

Though we are aiming to understand the relation between variables but there is an effect of one variable on another.

4. Pre experimental Design

According to Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias Preexperimental designs are weak in internal and external validity without allowing casual inferences. This design is usually used only when no other design is suitable for a study. In our study, Quasi-experimental design is suitable, so we do not need to consider pre experimental design.

References

Burger, J. (2009). Replicating Milgram: Would people still obey today? American Psychologist , 64(1), 1-11.

Flynn, J. R. (1998). IQ gains over time: Toward finding the causes. The rising curve: Long-term gains in IQ and related measures, 25-66.

Frankfort-Nachmias, C. &. (2008). Research methods in the social sciences (7th ed.). New York: Worth.

Marques, S., & Lima, M. L. (2011). Living in grey areas: Industrial activity and psychological health.Journal of Environmental Psychology, 31(4), 314-322. doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2010.12.002