Stress prediction and management in parents of children diagnosed with Autism

    Abstract

This paper is aimed at understanding the research conducted on the stress and stressors involved in the daily life of parents of children who have Autism. Parenting a child who has been diagnosed with Autism can be a challenge without a good support system, special parenting techniques and in some cases without a proper diagnosis. Parents of Autistic children face social, personal, financial conditions that can be daunting. Such situations for any person can be a source of stress and give rise to stressors that need proper management. If these stressors are not handled with the right means, then they can take a toll on the parents mental and then eventually physical health as well. This paper suggests some techniques and strategies that would benefit this population in particular. These strategies are used and designed considering the specific situation faced by these parents with a child who suffers from Autism.

Target Population- Parents of Children having Autism

The number of children diagnosed today with Autism, medically known as Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) is much more than it was until few years ago. The CDC reports that today 1 out of 88 children is identified with ASD, where as in 2007 it was 1 out of 150 children (www.cdc.gov) and looking at data from previous years, it shows that the diagnosis has increased by 23 % every year.

This means that today the number of parents with children with Autism is also higher than it was few years. What is Autism? Autism is defined by APA as ‘the most severe developmental disability’. It appears ‘within the first three years of life, autism involves impairments in social interaction’ (Encyclopedia of Psychology, APA). The symptoms and behavior for people with autism can vary from not being aware of other people’s feelings to hurting themselves, from unusual eating, sleeping habits to have trouble communicating. Baird et al (2003) in their study on diagnosis of Autism defined Autism as ‘behaviorally defined disorder that’s the end point of several organic aetiologies’. At first Autism was linked to many prenatal exposure to chronic conditions, and then their study connected Autism to neurobiological disorder. They also add that the diagnosis of Autism typically happens between the ages of 2 and 3 years of age, which is conflict with some other researches, but their point on surveillance of the child’s behavior make it a valid age for diagnosis. This brings us to the age that Autism is mostly diagnosed is early child hood years and preschool age. Ostreling & Dawson (1994) did a study to understand the

Stress prediction ad management in parents of children diagnosed with Autism.

right age for diagnosing Autistic children, and their study said that though Autism is not usually diagnosed until age 4, but parents of these children report observing something unusual even before age one. They talk about using ‘retrospective’ technique to diagnose Autism in children younger than age four and having involvement by parents in reporting, observing to help with diagnosis. This study and the general idea that Autistic children show signs of their condition at a young age and that it has genetic factors related to it, makes it understandable what the parents of these children go through. It makes it more significant that the lives of parents with children having Autism can be stressed.  

Wolf et al (1996) reported in their study that parents of Autistic children tend to have a higher stress level than parents of children with Down syndrome or parents of developmentally average children. They added that parents of Autistic children had a compromise on their well being due to many reasons that include the unpredictable and the uncertain nature of Autism. Parenting to toddlers and young children can require lots of patience, understanding and organization to make it a stress free experience and successful. When the same experience changes for a bigger challenge and the children are facing disabilities like Autism, the stress for the parents can increase. This stress can be due to the parenting needs of the child, and for many other reasons as well that can act as stressors.  Dumas et al (1991) studied stress faced while parenting by parents of children diagnosed with Autism, Down syndrome and behavior disorders. Their results clearly showed that parents of children with Autism faced much higher levels of stress due to behavioral difficulties.

Common Stressors for this population and related health issues

There are some stressors that are common among the population of parents of Autistic children because of some specific challenges that these parents face due to the disability suffered by their child. This can include parenting challenges and other conditions like social support, financial constraints and family structure as well. Parents of more than one child may face stress when they observe the effects of their Autistic child on other siblings. Smith & Perry (2005) report that siblings of Autistic children feel neglected and pressured to excel and take household responsibilities. Finding the balance between all children can be a major stressor for these parents as the Autistic child may demand and require more attention that their siblings.

Parents feel stress in their marriage as well and mothers report to have facing more stress than fathers of Autistic children due to being more involved in parenting and caring for the child.

Dunn et al (2001) study shows that parents of Autistic children face more marital strain and dissatisfaction, lack of marital intimacy as compared to parents of normal kids. The parents of Autistic children can get effects of the parenting challenge of the Autistic child on their own relationship which can act as a stressor when trying to run a functional family and work as partners.  

The role of parents is major in an Autistic child’s life as they run the day to day life of the child. The behavioral symptoms may vary in every child, but the lack of understanding, social skills and inability to communicate and showing unusual is very common (mayoclinic.com).

 This was concluded by White et al (2009) as well when their study results showed that anxiety is very common among children with Autism Spectrum disorder (ASD) and these children do not show anxiety that would be considered age appropriate.

For parents of Autistic children, managing small to major tasks in daily life can actually turn in chronic stress (a form of stress that you get used to because it is so often in your life) that can eventually start effecting their own health.  

Depression and isolation are some general health issues that can develop among parents of Autistic children as result of chronic stress.

Polawsky et al (2013) while looking at the parental reaction to diagnosis of their child with Autism found that these parents went into isolation, depression and negative feelings towards their spouses. This was found more common among mothers who admitted to being stressed.

 Parents are also capable of neglecting their own physical and mental health when caring for their Autistic children. It takes a lot of time and effort to learn your child’s specific symptoms, how to handle them and help your child. In the mean time without a good support system around, it’s not improbable that parents may be unable to attend to their own health needs.

Stress management strategies

 1. Social support is most important

 Social support can be formal or informal, it can come from family, friends, child’s school or neighbors. Zablotsky et al (2012) report that social support from neighborhood seems to have significant effect on the quality of life and stress faced by parents of children with ASD. They also add that social support can be ‘diverse’ coming from whomever the parents feel a connection with which can make a big difference.

A good communication and mutual efforts with the child’s educators is also very important. Social challenges for the children are mainly faced at schools and a bad experience can create a high level of stress for parents. This can be prevented if there is good and effective communication with the teachers, school of the child especially if the child has been diagnosed with less than sever symptoms of Autism and is able to attend school with normal kids.

2. Physical activity as a family

Lang et al (2010) report that physical activity actually benefits children and individuals with ASD if it is specifically designed to be carried out by them. This can be a great coping technique for the parents where after advice from the caretaker of the child, they can get involved in some form of physical activity with their child. This will benefit their health as well as their child.

3.Marriage therapy and family therapy

When you have a child with special needs in the family then they effects of that is felt by the parents as well as other siblings. Marital therapy can be a very good tool to help with the day to day stress that the parents relationship has on it. The best of partners can be affected by a stressful situation like raising a child with development disabilities. Added to that can be the situation of other siblings as well who maybe feeling neglected and lost in the scenario. Family therapy can be helpful to reconnect, bond and develop strong communication about how to deal with daily situations.

  

                                                                 References:

Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring (ADDM) Network, United States, 2012. WWW.CDC.GOV.

Article on Autism, adapted from Encyclopedia of Psychology. www.apa.org

Baird, G., Cass, H., & Slonims, V. (2003). Diagnosis of autism. BMJ: British Medical Journal, 327(7413), 488.

Dumas, J. E., Wolf, L. C., Fisman, S. N., & Culligan, A. (1991). Parenting stress, child behavior problems, and dysphoria in parents of children with autism, Down syndrome, behavior disorders, and normal development. Exceptionality: A Special Education Journal, 2(2), 97-110.

Dunn, M. E., Burbine, T., Bowers, C. A., & Tantleff-Dunn, S. (2001). Moderators of stress in parents of children with autism. Community mental health journal,37(1), 39-52.

Lang, R., Koegel, L. K., Ashbaugh, K., Regester, A., Ence, W., & Smith, W. (2010). Physical exercise and individuals with autism spectrum disorders: A systematic review. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 4(4), 565-576.

Osterling, J., & Dawson, G. (1994). Early recognition of children with autism: A study of first birthday home videotapes. Journal of autism and developmental disorders, 24(3), 247-257.

Mayoclinic staff, Symptoms of Autism. Mayoclinic.com

Poslawsky, I. E., Naber, F. B., Van Daalen, E., & Van Engeland, H. (2013). Parental Reaction to Early Diagnosis of Their Children’s Autism Spectrum Disorder: An Exploratory Study. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 1-12.

Smith, T., & Perry, A. (2005). A sibling support group for brothers and sisters of children with autism. J Dev Disabil, 11, 77-88.

White, S. W., Oswald, D., Ollendick, T., & Scahill, L. (2009). Anxiety in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorders. Clinical psychology review, 29(3), 216-229.

Wolf, L. C., Noh, S., Fisman, S. N., & Speechley, M. (1989). Brief report: Psychological effects of parenting stress on parents of autistic children. Journal of autism and developmental disorders, 19(1), 157-166.

Zablotsky, B., Bradshaw, C. P., & Stuart, E. A. (2012). The Association Between Mental Health, Stress, and Coping Supports in Mothers of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders. Journal of autism and developmental disorders, 1-14.

PTSD in children

When I think of childhood and adolescent trauma, two major tragic events come to my mind: First, the Sandy Hook Elementary shooting event and second, the 9/11 incident. I can’t even imagine the trauma young children would have faced when the Sandy Hook elementary shooting took place. 9/11 was a traumatic event for adults and for children who lost parents, loved ones or were affected in indirect ways. I would like to base my discussion around these two incidents and the kind of traumas faced by children involved.

The kind of Post Trauma Stress Disorder (PTSD) I will discuss is one following a single event trauma and then the trauma of death of a parent. The events mentioned above did take place in United States, but PTSD among children is a global issue as reported by Ann Mccloskey & Walker (2000). They conducted a study to understand the development of PTSD among children as a result of repetitive traumatic events or a single traumatic event. Their results showed a significant number of children showing signs of PTSD and concluded that type 1 or type of traumatic events can cause PTSD among children irrespective of surroundings or location. Elahi et al (2009) studied the development of PTSD in children and adolescents when comparing groups who faced one single worse trauma to those who faced 2, 3 or 4 times trauma in their lives. Their study did not find a difference in the development of PTSD risks and found almost same number of cases among all four groups.

Stoppelbein & Greening (2000) studied PTSD symptoms among children bereaved by parental death and in a non trauma group as well. They concluded that children who had been bereaved by the death of a parent had more PTSD symptoms than non trauma or disaster experienced kids. Their results also showed that when the surviving parent suffered from PTSD the children were at a higher risk of developing PTSD as well. Single trauma events are like bombing or incidents like 9/11 can have effects similar to PTSD on young people.

Pfefferbaum et al (1999) studied psychological symptoms among high school and middle school students who were exposed to the Oklahoma City bombing across a range of losses and fears. Their results showed PTSD risks among the students and the impact of media had a strong connection to the youth’s reactions. Some researchers consider experiences of refugee children equivalent to trauma and report PTSD high at risk for this group of children. Heptinstall et al (2004) report that refugee children develop PTSD symptoms like depression and mental disorders, mostly post migration with signs of PTSD showing even in adulthood.

As mentioned earlier PTSD among children who lose a parent is more common if the surviving parent also suffers from PTSD. One strategy that maybe effective in an intervention aimed at helping children who experienced death of a parent would be to provide support to the surviving parent. If the surviving parent is equipped with effective coping strategies then he/ she may be able to overcome their PTSD. This will then have a strong impact on the child, adolescent in the form of parental support.

 ‘Time is the biggest healer’ and timing crucial when dealing with PTSD in children. Children go through phases of mental and physical growth more rapidly than adults. Their lives are changing at a faster speed as well with changes in peer pressures, physical changes and psychological needs from each parent. Sometimes children may not show signs of PTSD or develop PTSD until a long time after the trauma. For example if a young girl lost her mother then she may not felt her absence to an extreme until she reaches puberty or gets ready for dating. She may need her mother’s companionship more in teenage than as a little girl.

                                                            References

Ann McCloskey, Laura & Walker, M. (2000). Posttraumatic stress in children exposed to family violence and single-event trauma. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 39(1), 108-115.

Elhai, J. D., Engdahl, R. M., Palmieri, P. A., Naifeh, J. A., Schweinle, A., & Jacobs, G. A. (2009). Assessing posttraumatic stress disorder with or without reference to a single, worst traumatic event: Examining differences in factor structure. Psychological Assessment, 21(4), 629.

Heptinstall, E., Sethna, V., & Taylor, E. (2004). PTSD and depression in refugee children. European child & adolescent psychiatry, 13(6), 373-380.

Pfefferbaum, B., Nixon, S. J., Tucker, P. M., Tivis, R. D., Moore, V. L., Gurwitch, R. H.& Geis, H. K. (1999). Posttraumatic stress responses in bereaved children after the Oklahoma City bombing. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 38(11), 1372-1379.

Stoppelbein, L., & Greening, L. (2000). Posttraumatic stress symptoms in parentally bereaved children and adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 39(9), 1112-1119.

Binge eating among adolescents

Eating disorders are more common among adolescent females due to dieting in order to control weight (Hsu, 1989). However, the National Institute of Health (NIH) reports that eating disorders among men are under diagnosed and untreated (Strother et al, 2012). The numbers of eating disorders among men are on the rise and lack of proper intervention programs is one reason. Though research shows that adolescent females are at a higher risk of developing eating disorders, adolescent males are also not at a low risk. According to Ross & Ivis (1999) ‘binge eating’ disorder among male adolescents is also associated with higher possibilities of substance abuse or mental disorders.

Binge eating is ‘an eating disorder in which a person eats a much larger amount of food in a shorter period of time than he or she normally would and during binge eating, the person also feels a loss of control’ (NIH). This means that person suffering from binge eating would eat in between meals and 2-3 snack, consume between 5000-15000 calories in a sitting, overeats all day. Male adolescents who report binge eating report symptoms of depression, stress and some form of family function defect (Tanofsky-Kraff, 2008). Among the different disorders Binge eating is more likely to happen to adolescent males as research relates it to substance abuse and mental disorders. These two factors are at a higher risk for adolescent males as well and can cause binge eating disorder. Anorexia and Bulimia are usually associated with dieting, self-image (Smith et al, 1986), which are more common among adolescent women. According to Anderson (1999) eating disorders like binge eating among males maybe caused when in past they eat or diet to attain certain goals in sports. Indulgence in activities like video games, violent media exposure is also more common among male teenagers and this can lead to lack of physical exercise, aggression and behavioral problems (Konijn et al 2007). All these can then contribute to causes of eating disorders like binge eating.  

Research shows that male eating disorders are now known to be undiagnosed and untreated. The case of diagnosis and awareness of eating disorders among adolescent males maybe similar. One strategy to support control binge eating disorders among male adolescents is to highlight its importance among both genders. Self image, taking care of self is somewhat still unacceptable among teenage boys. To approach eating disorders as step towards good health in women and men is important. There would need to be a deliberate effort on part of school, counselors and family to highlight the effects of improper eating for males as much as for females.

References

Andersen, A. E. (1999). Eating disorders in males: Critical questions. Eating disorders: A reference sourcebook, 73-79.

Hsu, L. K. (1989). The gender gap in eating disorders: Why are the eating disorders more common among women?. Clinical Psychology Review, 9(3), 393-407.

Konijn, E. A., Nije Bijvank, M., & Bushman, B. J. (2007). I wish I were a warrior: the role of wishful identification in the effects of violent video games on aggression in adolescent boys. Developmental psychology, 43(4), 1038.

Ross, H. E., & Ivis, F. (1999). Binge eating and substance use among male and female adolescents. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 26(3), 245-260.

Smith, M. C., Pruitt, J. A., Mann, L. M., & Thelen, M. H. (1986). Attitudes and knowledge regarding bulimia and anorexia nervosa. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 5(3), 545-553.

Strother, E., Lemberg, R., Stanford, S. C., & Turberville, D. (2012). Eating disorders in men: underdiagnosed, undertreated, and misunderstood. Eating disorders, 20(5), 346-355.

Tanofsky-Kraff, M. (2008). Binge eating among children and adolescents.  In E. Jelalian & R. G. Steele (Eds.), Handbook of childhood and adolescent obesity (pp. 43–60). New York, NY: Springer.

Family influences on children, adolescent's health

Children and adolescent spend about 32 hours a week in school, which is a substantial amount of time. Peer pressure, academic struggles and daily stress can be associated with what the children experience at school. Recently another major connection established between influences of school and life of students is of nutrition, health and food (Wechsler et al, 2000). Major steps are being taken by the government, private non-profits and by parents to change the way we feed our children at school.

In my opinion, however a stronger impact on a child or adolescent’s diet and exercise is of the family. Golan et al (1998) conducted a study to compare the traditional approach of parent being the focus for change in eating health habits compared to when children are the focus of change. Their results showed that parents are the exclusive agents when aiming to control obesity among children. According to their study results the dropout rate is higher among all other methods of weight loss among adolescents, except when parents were the main source of change. Research has shown significantly the role of parents in influencing nutritional behavior of children and adolescents (Scaglioni et al 2008). Parents are the role models for children and create an environment that promotes healthy eating behavior. Scaglioni et al (2008) also highlight that a positive and healthy home environment (happy parents, strong family system and values) can also play a part in developing a positive attitude towards life, food, friends and other things in life.

Past research establishes a strong connection between media indulgence and a child, adolescent’s health in more than one way (Marshall et al 2004). There is statistical evidence of an effect of television viewing on obesity, lack of physical activity and body fatness among children. According to American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) American children and adolescents spend on an average 4 hours a day on media and more than the time they spend on any other activity (Barkin et al, 2006). Most of television viewing, media exposure that relates to lack of physical activity is experienced not at school but at home and among family. To limit television time and promote hobbies that promote physical activity would be an effective strategy. Parental rules in limiting screen time and getting engaged in physical activity has shown results in the past and has been suggested as an effective strategy to promote good health among children, adolescents ( Carlson et al, 2010).

Since we established that parents can play a vital role in nutritional and physical health of children, another effective strategy would the education of parents on relevant topics. This strategy could be a nip in the bud for many other related factors like taking lunch from home, highlighting the importance of health as a family and understanding the nutritional needs of the children. Giving nutritional education to parents can promote parental health, support for their kids and positive eating behaviors that will last longer (Crockett et al, 1988).

References

Barkin, S., Ip, E., Richardson, I., Klinepeter, S., Finch, S., & Krcmar, M. (2006). Parental media mediation styles for children aged 2 to 11 years.Archives of pediatrics & adolescent medicine, 160(4), 395-401.

Carlson, S. A., Fulton, J. E., Lee, S. M., Foley, J. T., Heitzler, C., & Huhman, M. (2010). Influence of limit-setting and participation in physical activity on youth screen time. Pediatrics, 126(1), e89-e96.

Crockett, S. J., Mullis, R. M., & Perry, C. L. (1988). Parent nutrition education: a conceptual model. Journal of school health, 58(2), 53-57.

Golan, M., Weizman, A., Apter, A., & Fainaru, M. (1998). Parents as the exclusive agents of change in the treatment of childhood obesity. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 67(6), 1130-1135.

Marshall, S. J., Biddle, S. J., Gorely, T., Cameron, N., & Murdey, I. (2004). Relationships between media use, body fatness and physical activity in children and youth: a meta-analysis. International journal of obesity, 28(10), 1238-1246.

Scaglioni, S., Salvioni, M., & Galimberti, C. (2008). Influence of parental attitudes in the development of children eating behaviour. British Journal of Nutrition, 99(S1), S22-S25.

Wechsler, H., Devereaux, R. S., Davis, M., & Collins, J. (2000). Using the school environment to promote physical activity and healthy eating. Preventive Medicine, 31(2), S121-S137.

Mental disorders and substance abuse disorder among adolescents

Depression, anxiety, bipolar disorder and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) are mental disorders reported among adults, children and adolescents. In the recent years, however, there have been reports of an increase in numbers of these disorders among children (OAS, 2008, learning resources).

Before I discuss one of these disorders in connection with substance abuse, I would like to add that diagnosis of each of these disorders among children maybe especially hard. This is due to the similarity of symptoms and misdiagnosis is a possibility which can be harmful. Webb (2005) reports that many children are being ‘misdiagnosed’ for ADHD, Bipolar, Asperger’s disease when they are actually very creative and ‘gifted’ children. Their study examines that many times diagnosis are made without understanding the background or other indirectly related factors that maybe causing behavior that’s not normal. Webb (2005) gives an appealing approach that most of the time these children are labeled as having a possible mental disorder if they show behavior that maybe unacceptable to their environment. If the environment was removed from the equation then the same children may be dealt with, educated and viewed as normal kids.

I find this view point quiet intriguing, especially since diagnosis of disorders like ADHD, ADD and other mental disorders in children has always been in question. Prescription of medication and their side effects is another heart breaking aspect. Sometimes, the children need the meds and function better with medication, but misdiagnosis is not rare as well.

Bipolar disorder is defined as ‘a mood disorder characterized by alternating periods of depression and mania’ by the American Psychological Association (APA). It is a serious mental illness in which ‘common emotions’ become intense and can be unpredictable. A person suffering from bipolar can go from being extremely happy to being in a state of melancholy, sadness that can last up to weeks. Diagnosis of Bipolar in children takes careful understanding and observation of symptoms. According to APA Bipolar in children and adolescents is controversial and the stakes are high.

Substance abuse among adolescents is often associated with mental disorders. Wilens et al (1999) conducted a study on the connection between Bipolar disorder (BPD) and risk for substance abuse disorder (SUD). They conclude that adolescent BPD gives a higher risk to developing SUD compared to BPD onset in childhood. They highlight that an awareness of risks and effects of SUD among the adolescents maybe an effective way of preventing SUD.  

Some experiences and situation maybe triggers for developing SUD among adolescents who suffer from BPD. According to Afifi et al (2009) there is a close relation between parental divorce and lifetime mental disorders, substance abuse. Their study reports that children who suffer from child abuse or parental divorce are at a higher risk of developing mental illnesses and with same experiences as adolescents they are at higher risk for SUD. An emotionally stressful situation may trigger the possibility of adolescents to develop SUD. Examples of emotionally stressful instances are parental divorce or financial crisis, peer pressures, bullying, loss of a close friend (moving or misunderstanding) or break up from boy/girl friend. Academic pressure could also be a trigger for adolescents with BPD to develop SUD.

Research shows that loneliness from lack of strong familial relationships or absence of close friends can trigger symptoms of BPD and increase the risks of SUD (Rokach, 2002). To help adolescents reduce the risk of SUD development, family bonds can be created with cousins, grandparents and neighbors. This can be vitally helpful in case of single parents or families with one child. Friendships and health relationships with adults other than parents neutralizes loneliness and provides mental, emotional gymnastics that can benefit in many ways.

References

Afifi, T. O., Boman, J., Fleisher, W., & Sareen, J. (2009). The relationship between child abuse, parental divorce, and lifetime mental disorders and suicidality in a nationally representative adult sample. Child abuse & neglect,33(3), 139-147.

Rokach, A. (2002). Determinants of loneliness of young adult drug users. The Journal of psychology, 136(6), 613-630.

 Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Office of Applied Studies. (2008). The NSDUH report: Major depressive episode among youths aged 12 to 17 in the United States: 2004 to 2006. Rockville, MD: Author. Retrieved fromhttp://oas.samhsa.gov/2k8/youthDepress/youthDepress.cfm 

Webb, J. T. (Ed.). (2005). Misdiagnosis and dual diagnoses of gifted children and adults: ADHD, bipolar, OCD, Asperger's, depression, and other disorders. Great Potential Press, Inc.

Wilens, T. E., Biederman, J., Millstein, R. B., Wozniak, J., Hahesy, A. L., & Spencer, T. J. (1999). Risk for Substance Use Disorders in Youths With Child-and Adolescent‐Onset Bipolar Disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 38(6), 680-685.

How Cannabinoids aka Marijuana and Hashish affect the body?

How Cannabinoids aka Marijuana and Hashish affect the body?

Cannabinoids also known as Marijuana or Hashish can be administered by swallowing or smoking and they cause acute effects like relaxation, euphoria, slowed reaction time or anxiety, panic attacks (National Institute of Health, NIH, 2011). Marijuana is one of the most widely used illegal drugs today and can have varying effects from relaxation to hallucinations on its users (Breedlove & Watson, 2013). Continued use of Marijuana can lead to addiction, decline in cognitive abilities and like tobacco smoking, marijuana smoking can also cause respiratory diseases. Murray et al (2007) conclude in their study that adolescents who use marijuana are at a higher risk of developing psychosis but it’s not clear if adolescents with psychological issues are at a higher risk of being addicted to the drug.

Physiological Mechanisms of addiction to Cannabinoids

Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is the main active compound found in Cannabinoids and the one which the brain receptors react to. The brain has Cannabinoid receptors that intercede the effects of THC. These receptors are found in cerebral cortex, hippocampus and substantia nigra and areas like the brain stem show a few receptors. Sub groups of Cannabinoid receptors are CB1 and CB2. CB1 are found in the nervous system and CB2 are found in the immune system. CB1 are present in the central nervous system of the mammals in a unique manner and more than any other G protein related receptors and the highest level of presence is in motor control and hippocampus (Breivogel, 1998). The effects of Cannabinoids on the central nervous system correlate to the distribution of cannabinoid receptors in the brain and their activation of the specific ‘G-protein mediated signal’ as explained by Breivogel (1998).

Two ways knowledge of physiological mechanism can impact

The users of cannabinoids are mostly under the age of 25 and include teenagers as well who are not aware of the physiological long term effects of the drug (NIH). According to the NIH there was decline in the use of Marijuana or Cannabinoids in the late nineties and mid 2000’s, but since 2012 there has been significant increase in the use of these drugs among high school kids and adolescents. An awareness of the physiological effects of the drug on a young person’s brain and its damage in the long run could be an effective preventive measure to stop these numbers from rising. Many teenagers admit to being unaware of how exactly the drugs give them relaxation, euphoria and even the parents are clueless about the effects, the fact that their kids are smoking Marijuana or how it can lead to addiction (Walters, 2002). Knowing the physiology of the impact of the drug can be a beneficial to parents and youth.

Breedlove and Watson (2013) point out the importance of understanding the physiology of the effects of drugs for rehabilitation purposes. Family members or support groups are often times unaware of the physical stress on the body and reactions of the brain to withdrawal from the drug. Understanding the physiology can give a better perspective to the family and support groups of persons struggling with addiction, rehabilitation. It can increases the level of sympathy and patience among the support network.

References

Breivogel, C. S., & Childers, S. R. (1998). The functional neuroanatomy of brain cannabinoid receptors. Neurobiology of Disease, 5(6), 417-431.

Castle, D. J., & Murray, R. M. (Eds.). (2004). Marijuana and Madness: Psychiatry and Neurobiology. Cambridge University Press.

Commonly abused drugs, 2011. National Institute on Drug Abuse. Retrieved from http://www.drugabuse.gov/drugs-abuse/commonly-abused-drugs/commonly-abused-drugs-chart

Walters, J. (2002). The myth of ‘harmless’ marijuana. Washington Post. Washington, DC, 1, A25.

Research Designs Comparison: Strengths and Weaknesses

Research Designs Comparison: Strengths and Weaknesses

Aysha Siddiqui

Quantitative Reasoning & Analysis (RSCH - 6200Y - 2)

Burger, J. (2009). Replicating Milgram: Would people still obey today? 

Burger (2008) used a controlled experiment design for his experiment in which he replicated Stanley Milgram’s (1974) experiment. The original experiment by Milgram was conducted to understand the concept of obedience. In the replication of the experiment, many steps and tests were added to the original one to address all the ethical concerns.

The research design is a ‘one-shot case study’ in which the results are collected from a single group of at a single point of time. This is a kind of Pre experimental design which is mostly used when no other design is suitable for the study. These designs are weakest for internal and external validity (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2008).  The one shot case is also aimed at understanding a phenomenon that produced change in the past.

The strength of this design is the flexibility and ability of the researcher to conduct their study with a unique design. This design gives an option to a researcher to conduct a study though they were unable to fit their research design into the mould of other traditional designs.

Marques, S., & Lima, M. L. (2011). Living in grey areas: Industrial activity and psychological health. Journal of Environmental Psychology.

Marques & Lima (2011) clearly explain their choice of using the Quasi-experimental design to understand the affect of living in industrial areas on psychological health. Their hypothesis is that people living in industrial area have lower psychological health. The second goal of the study is to understand the relation between the ‘perception of living are as industrial and psychological health’.

The weakness of Quasi-experimental design is that it allows random selection but not random assignment (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2008) and this was the weakness in this study as well.

The strength of a Quasi- experimental design is that they allow researcher to use natural settings and in real life. This is the strength of the study done by Marques & Lima (2011) as well when they are able to use a sample of population living in ‘industrial areas’.

Recommend a quantitative design for your research plan.

The recommended quantitative design for my research plan is the Quasi-experimental design. This design allows random selection of sample but does not allow random assignment. Our research will use the ‘planned variation design’ which measure ‘the casual affects of systematically varied stimuli’ (Fraknfort-Machmias & Machmias, 2008). The rationale for using this experimental design is:

• Most important reason to use this design is because we are testing the variance in Intelligence Quotient (IQ) of adolescents subject to their exposure to an activity.

Planned variation allows us to measure casual effects over a period of time, and this is crucial in our research. We need to monitor the time consumed by the kids in the activity for at least six months, and then see it’s affects on their IQ.

• Past literature shows the use of this design in studies similar to our research study. Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias (2008) give the example of a policy- relevant study conducted to check the affects of Head Start Planned Variation (HSPV) on the development of academic skills among low income families.

• Our research will aim to distribute important variables equally among the group of children chosen. Our first groups will be kids, ages 7-11, who have spent in the past and shown interest in playing any kind of ‘organized’ sports. The second group will be the same age children who have exposure to playing video games (this includes time spent on iPad, computer, Xbox, play station etc.).

• Planned variation design is suitable mainly also because time is of essence here as our dependant variable is IQ of the children. A review of past literature and theories shows that children IQ changes over time (Flynn, 1998). This may be due to some relevant factors that we plan to keep as control variables.

For the designs that you did not choose, state why each one is not appropriate for your research questions, hypotheses, and variables.

1. Classical Experiment Design

Frankfor-Nachmias and Nachmias (2008) defined classical experiment design in which there two comparable groups: an experimental and a control group. The experimental group is equivalent to the control group, except the difference of exposure to the independent variable. The experimental group is exposed to the variable and control group is not. Pre test and post test measurement are taken of both groups and the data is compared.

In our study we do make a comparison, but there is not an experiment or control group. We do not have two separate groups of sample based on a treatment or independent variable exposure.

The comparison of two groups is based upon exposure to the independent variable in the past and there are two separate kinds of independent variables.

2. Cross sectional- Not looking for opinions of people with or without control variables

Cross sectional design is though the most popular design used by social scientists (Frankfor-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2008) but it is not suitable for our research. This design often uses survey research to collect information like past experiences, backgrounds and attitudes. In most cross sectional studies researchers are trying to find a relation between two variables. 

In our research we are interested in understanding the effects of independent variables, choice of free time activity, on the dependant variable which is the IQ of the children. Collection of data from the past will include test scores and time spent in either sports or playing games. Our research is not aimed at understand the opinions or background effects on present conditions.

Though we are aiming to understand the relation between variables but there is an effect of one variable on another.

4. Pre experimental Design

According to Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias Preexperimental designs are weak in internal and external validity without allowing casual inferences. This design is usually used only when no other design is suitable for a study. In our study, Quasi-experimental design is suitable, so we do not need to consider pre experimental design.

References

Burger, J. (2009). Replicating Milgram: Would people still obey today? American Psychologist , 64(1), 1-11.

Flynn, J. R. (1998). IQ gains over time: Toward finding the causes. The rising curve: Long-term gains in IQ and related measures, 25-66.

Frankfort-Nachmias, C. &. (2008). Research methods in the social sciences (7th ed.). New York: Worth.

Marques, S., & Lima, M. L. (2011). Living in grey areas: Industrial activity and psychological health.Journal of Environmental Psychology, 31(4), 314-322. doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2010.12.002