Survey Research Methods

Survey research methods are most commonly used for public opinions, measurement of political perceptions and to understand personal perceptions, interest (Fowler, 2013). According to Groves et al (2009) ‘Survey’ is a systematic method of gathering information from a sample for the purpose of ‘constructing quantitative descriptors’ of the attributes of the larger population.

Survey research methods is popular research method, yet not free from limitations. Malhotra & Grover (1998) report that, survey methodology is used very often in productions and operations management (POM) but are not very effective when poorly designed and executed. Their study also reports that ‘multi item constructs and strict checks for content validity’ are observed to be the best ways to improve survey methodology effectiveness.

One major controversy in survey research is related to the modern day and is based on the concept of collecting data via email, electronic media. Interesting angle to this controversy is that this method of data collection in survey research has some major advantages also. Three major errors that can error when using email for survey purposes are inerviewer’s bias, low response rate and lack of sensitivity ( Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2008). This can be a major limitation when studying groups that may not have access to the internet or have an email computer. This would include groups for example from lower Socio Economic Status (SES), homeless or people living in shelters. Coomber (1997) highlights that when target groups like ‘illicit drug dealers’ are to be studied, use of internet could be useful but more a hindrance. Sampling issues are also part of controversy about using emails and internet for survey research (Wright, 2005). This can include factors like same person with more than one email addresses, higher costs for surveys (some internet sites require memberships etc.). High instances of hacking, identity theft are also some of the limitations for use of internet or email to collect data.

Though I discussed the limitations of using internet for survey research, my position on this controversy is that the advantages of these methods are stronger. We are living in an era where children young people are technology natives and overruling use of technology for survey research purposes would be illogical. I highlighted issues above, but I would also like to mention that in recent past many antidotes have also been developed for issues like hacking and identity theft.

References

Coomber, R. (1997). Using the Internet for survey research.

Fowler, F. J. (2013). Survey research methods (Vol. 1). Sage.

Frankfort-Nachmias, C., & Nachmias, D. (2008). Research methods in the social sciences (7th ed.). New York: Worth.

Groves, R. M., Fowler, F. J. Jr., Couper, M. P., Lepkowski, J. M., Singer, E. & Tourangeau, R. (2009). Survey methodology (2^nd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

Malhotra, M. K., & Grover, V. (1998). An assessment of survey research in POM: from constructs to theory. Journal of operations management, 16(4), 407-425.

Wright, K. B. (2005). Researching Internet‐based populations: Advantages and disadvantages of online survey research, online questionnaire authoring software packages, and web survey services. Journal of Computer‐Mediated Communication, 10(3), 00-00.

Stress coping parents of ASD children

Stress management technique: The population is parents of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and the technique is practicing yoga two to three times a week. This is a two in one technique which helps the parents as well as the Autistic child. Practicing Yoga helps with the Autistic behavior of the child especially with anxiety which is a big source of negative behavior, and this in turn helps with the stress parents of Autistic children experience. Yoga as a stress coping technique also includes practice of meditation and muscle relaxation. Radhakrishna (2010) did a study to explore integrated approach to yoga therapy (IAYT) as treatment to increase imitative skills in children with ASD. The study was conducted over a 10 month period and the results showed improvement in children’s imitation skills like pointing to facial, body parts and parents also reported improved free play time at home.

This technique includes practicing Yoga and meditation at least two to three times a week. The parents would conduct the exercise two day a week with their children and the children could practice on their own maybe at school or at a group class. A measure to evaluate the effectiveness of this stress management technique would be a log book or fill in sheet with yes/no to questions. The questions would range from what change in behavior is observed in the child with ASD and explore the feelings of the parents after the exercise. Questions about feelings of the parent would include those that are directed at their stress level, maybe feeling less anxious or stressed after the practice. The evaluation form would include a small box or section to report any other difference the parents feel that are not mentioned in the list of questions. A form would accompany the stack of question list that is filled out only once when the parents start recording. This form includes a brief history of ASD diagnosis, child’s current age and schooling details as well as other sibling information. This is crucial in our evaluation since we are looking at stress faced by the parents as a result of the challenges they face with their other children as well who don’t suffer from ASD.

The most important benefit of providing multiple stress management technique to stress sufferers is having a choice in case one technique fails. This is subject to the fact that every person handles stress differently, reacts in a different manner and may need individualized coping techniques that depend on the kind, time and intensity of the stress (learning resources, Smith, 2011). Manuck et al (1991) studied individual differences in cellular immune response to stress. Their study found that individuals differ significantly in their ‘immunological response to behavioral stimuli’ and such differences are also seen in response to stress.

There can be barriers to effective stress management. One barrier which can come up considering our stress management technique could be financial restraints. Yoga and meditation is an activity that can require some supervision and training initially. This can be done by a trained person and in form of individual training or as a group. Usually Yoga experts require some fee or charge a price for training individual or to allow them to participate in a group class. If the insurance carrier doesn’t cover this kind of expense related to the special condition of the ASD suffering child and his parents, then expense to use Yoga as a therapy would be completely covered by the parents. This can be a barrier in using this as a stress coping technique. Baspure et al (2012) looked at possible barriers to using Yoga as therapy for schizophrenic patients in India. Their study concluded that despite overcoming the barrier of cost effectiveness of the therapy technique, getting daily training under specialized supervision was still a barrier in many parts of the country. The therapy would be effective if practiced at least for one month, and to have specialized training for that long was a challenge.

There can be cultural or religious barriers as well. Yoga stems from Hindu and Buddhism practices, which can be unappealing in some cultures or religions for reasons of bias, personal views and social taboos. This kind of barrier can be relevant in other coping techniques as well.

References

Baspure, S., Jagannathan, A., Kumar, S., Varambally, S., Thirthalli, J., Venkatasubramanain, G. Gangadhar, B. N. (2012). Barriers to yoga therapy as an add-on treatment for schizophrenia in India. International journal of yoga, 5(1), 70.

  

Manuck, S. B., Cohen, S., Rabin, B. S., Muldoon, M. F., & Bachen, E. A. (1991). Individual differences in cellular immune response to stress. Psychological science, 2(2), 111-115.

Radhakrishna, S. (2010). Application of integrated yoga therapy to increase imitation skills in children with autism spectrum disorder. International journal of yoga, 3(1), 26.

Smith, M., & Segal, R. (2011, December). Stress management: How to reduce, prevent and cope with stress. Retrieved from http://helpguide.org/mental/stress_management_relief_coping.htm

The Human Visual System

Description how the visual system works

The human visual system is a process that begins with the retina, receptor cells and includes two kinds of photoreceptors called cones and rods, the optic nerve (Breedlove and Watson, 2013). The retina is in the back of the eye and contains several cells in separate layers. The retina is the ‘receptive surface’ that allows the light to enter and contains photoreceptors. There are two kinds of photoreceptors called rods and cones that perform their own distinct function. They release neurotransmitter molecules, (Breedlove & Watson, 2013) which control the bipolar cells that synapse with the rods and cones. Bipolar cells connect to ganglion cells and their axons then form the optic nerve. The optic nerve carries information to the cerebral cortex in the brain, and this, results in visual perception.

How context can affect the visual perception

 Todorovic (2006) used a very clear example of visual field and visual target to how context affects the visual perception. According to him visual field is all that is around the eye or what the eyes can see; however, there are some objects that catch the visual attention, and this is due to the context in which those objects are perceived. His study explained this context of visual perception on geometrical basis as well.

Two potential benefits of context affecting visual perception

One major benefit of context is ‘recognition’ and to focus of what seems familiar to the eye in the complex settings the visual system is viewing (Chun, 2000). Visual memories are based on putting what you see in the present in the context when you saw the same person, event or thing in the past.

The reflex action is a spontaneous response of the body to any stimuli, possibly with danger (American Psychological Association, APA). Reflex action as a result of visual perception is possible if the is perceived in its context. An example is that if a knife lying on the counter seems harmless with no reflex stimulated, but the same knife if held by an attacker will get a different reflex.

Two potential costs of context affecting visual perception

A cost of context affecting visual perception would be the opposite of the benefit mentioned above i.e. the recognizing factor. If there is no recognition then memory of what is perceived by the eye is lost and a good example of patients suffering from amnesia. They are able to visually perceive and their visual system is normally functioning, however, what is missing is the context of what they have already seen in the past.

Another cost would be misunderstanding or ove looking what the reality is of what the eye is looking at. If there is a huge crowd and a person is looking for a single person, then context can keep him distracted from that one person who is looking for.

Chun, M. M. (2000). Contextual cueing of visual attention. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4(5), 170-178.

Todorović, D. (2006). Geometrical basis of perception of gaze direction. Vision research, 46(21), 3549-3562.

Hypotheses and Theory

‘Theory is a great aid to clarity’ writes DeVellis (2012) when explaining the importance of keeping scale development on track.  A theory may take form of an argument, a discussion or an explanation of an observable fact that takes place in the world (Creswell, 2009). Quantitative research is often aimed at testing theories as an explanation to their questions (Creswell, 2009). Theory in a research study can occupy a whole section in a research proposal and in a dissertation may use multi theoretical outline (Research continuum-learning resources).

‘Hypotheses are drive by theory’ (learning resources) and Creswell (2009) writes that in fact theory is an ‘interrelated set’ of variables that forms into proposals and hypotheses. This then identifies the relationship of the variables. It can be rightly said that there can’t be a hypotheses without a theory and a theory is without a purpose if there is no hypotheses. A hypotheses is ‘testable’ or not: this fact depends upon a valid theory and set definitions (learning resources). Sutton (1995) reports that ‘theory’ can be meaningless if its deterrents like hypotheses are not applied to it. Theory is a strong component of a research study and can be made comprehensive by reading, collecting data from past research about the topic of interest. 

It is crucial to understand that in the relation between theory and hypotheses, a theory must be a ‘testable theory’ (Doc sharing). A testable theory is the one that has concepts pulled from a hypotheses and can be expressed in statistical analysis. According to Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias (2008) there is no one definition of a theory and theories can be classified according to their scope. This is significant in research conducted by social scientists, where they are in agreement that theory is the ‘ultimate goal’ of scientific activities but differing views about meaning of theory.

My area of interest is relevant to the globalization in recent times and to the ideas of cross culture in almost every society. To make the discussion a bit updated, let me share some facts I read about the FIFA soccer world. According to Kresting (2007) the FIFA world cup in 2010 showed major changes from 2006 in forms of xenophobia reduction which was suspected in Germany in 2006. The study concludes that major sports events like the FIFA cup promote tolerance and a wider level of multiculturalism, solidarity. This year in 2014 almost every team playing the in the FIFA cup has players who are either immigrants or originally from a different nation. This shows that not only in the USA, but world over the cross culture concepts are evolving.

My research study aims at understand the effects of being raised in a cross culture, by parents who are immigrants or of religion, ethnicity that is a minority on children. The study will collect data through survey research on the level of success among first generation children of immigrants. We would then compare the data collected to the levels of success of the peers (college age or adults) who originate from a family, culture native to their nation.

References

Creswell, W.J. (2009). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.

DeVellis, R. F. (2012). Scale Development. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Frankfort-Nachmias, C., & Nachmias, D. (2008). Research methods in the social sciences (7th ed.). New York: Worth Publishers.

Kersting, N. (2007). Sport and national identity: A Comparison of the 2006 and 2010 FIFA World Cups™. Politikon, 34(3), 277-293.

Laureate Education (2012). The Research Continuum (Walden University, PSYC 6202).

Sutton, R. I., & Staw, B. M. (1995). What theory is not. Administrative science quarterly, 371-384.

Probability vs Non probability sampling

Probability sampling means using any sample that has used random selection from the population and non probability sampling is the contrary process. Sample selection is a very important part of a survey research study and a unsuitable sample selection can lead to incorrect inferences about the population under consideration (Groves at el, 2009).

Probability sampling assigns an equal or a nonzero chance of selection to all elements of population (Groves et al, 2009) and this is also the best advantage of this method. According to Groves et al (2009) the benefit is that we can use one sample ‘realization to estimate the characteristic of the frame population’. Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias (2008) write that probability sample is the ‘only’ method that can be used representative sample designs. Representative sample designs is an analysis made using sample units that give results similar to those results that would have been obtained from the whole population. The distinguishing factor of probability sample designs that it gives the same probability to each unit to be included in a sample is also its best advantage.

A well designed sample makes certain that if the study was conducted repeatedly with different samples then the same results will be obtained with minimum variation (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2008). Probability sample designs make it possible for the researchers to estimate the degree of deviation if the study was repeated. Rao,Hartley & Cochran(1962) reports that the probability method is the simplicity of calculation and calculating the variance of the estimator.

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I would like add an interesting point to this comparison of probability and non probability sampling: the probability sampling techniques used in a quantitative research are ‘rarely appropriate’ when conducting a qualitative research study of the same nature (Marshall, 1996). I would also like to add that it is not uncommon for social scientists to use non probability designs for various reasons: study of an unspecified population or convenience, cost outweighs other factors.

My final project aims at understanding if a relation exists between success in life and growing up as an immigrant or in a cross culture. I prefer to use a proportionate stratified sample design as in my research the variable of ‘being raised by immigrant parents/ cross culture’ is already defined. I would use that as the basis of division as according to Frankfort-Nachmias & Nacmias (2008), when dividing sample into a homogeneous strata the basis of division is related to the variable. The sub samples of the sample design would be based upon age of the participants as well. We are aiming to measure success at various stages in life: high school, college and then eventually mid life.

References

Frankfort-Nachmias, C., & Nachmias, D. (2008). Research Methods in the Social Sciences (7th ed.). United States of America: Worth Publishers.

 Groves, R. M., Fowler, F. J. Jr., Couper, M. P., Lepkowski, J. M., Singer, E., & Tourangeau, R.

(2009). Survey methodology (2nd ed.).  Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

Marshall, M. N. (1996). Sampling for qualitative research. Family practice, 13(6), 522-526

Rao, J. N., Hartley, H. O., & Cochran, W. G. (1962). On a simple procedure of unequal probability sampling without replacement. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society. Series B (Methodological), 482-491.

Survey research elements

‘Theory is a great aid to clarity’ writes DeVellis (2012) when explaining the importance of keeping scale development on track.  A theory may take form of an argument, a discussion or an explanation of an observable fact that takes place in the world (Creswell, 2009). Quantitative research is often aimed at testing theories as an explanation to their questions (Creswell, 2009). Theory in a research study can occupy a whole section in a research proposal and in a dissertation may use multi theoretical outline (Research continuum-learning resources).

‘Hypotheses are drive by theory’ (learning resources) and Creswell (2009) writes that in fact theory is an ‘interrelated set’ of variables that forms into proposals and hypotheses. This then identifies the relationship of the variables. It can be rightly said that there can’t be a hypotheses without a theory and a theory is without a purpose if there is no hypotheses. A hypotheses is ‘testable’ or not: this fact depends upon a valid theory and set definitions (learning resources). Sutton (1995) reports that ‘theory’ can be meaningless if its deterrents like hypotheses are not applied to it. Theory is a strong component of a research study and can be made comprehensive by reading, collecting data from past research about the topic of interest. 

It is crucial to understand that in the relation between theory and hypotheses, a theory must be a ‘testable theory’ (Doc sharing). A testable theory is the one that has concepts pulled from a hypotheses and can be expressed in statistical analysis. According to Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias (2008) there is no one definition of a theory and theories can be classified according to their scope. This is significant in research conducted by social scientists, where they are in agreement that theory is the ‘ultimate goal’ of scientific activities but differing views about meaning of theory.

My area of interest is relevant to the globalization in recent times and to the ideas of cross culture in almost every society. To make the discussion a bit updated, let me share some facts I read about the FIFA soccer world. According to Kresting (2007) the FIFA world cup in 2010 showed major changes from 2006 in forms of xenophobia reduction which was suspected in Germany in 2006. The study concludes that major sports events like the FIFA cup promote tolerance and a wider level of multiculturalism, solidarity. This year in 2014 almost every team playing the in the FIFA cup has players who are either immigrants or originally from a different nation. This shows that not only in the USA, but world over the cross culture concepts are evolving.

My research study aims at understand the effects of being raised in a cross culture, by parents who are immigrants or of religion, ethnicity that is a minority on children. The study will collect data through survey research on the level of success among first generation children of immigrants. We would then compare the data collected to the levels of success of the peers (college age or adults) who originate from a family, culture native to their nation.

References

Creswell, W.J. (2009). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.

DeVellis, R. F. (2012). Scale Development. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Frankfort-Nachmias, C., & Nachmias, D. (2008). Research methods in the social sciences (7th ed.). New York: Worth Publishers.

Kersting, N. (2007). Sport and national identity: A Comparison of the 2006 and 2010 FIFA World Cups™. Politikon, 34(3), 277-293.

Laureate Education (2012). The Research Continuum (Walden University, PSYC 6202).

Sutton, R. I., & Staw, B. M. (1995). What theory is not. Administrative science quarterly, 371-384.

Smoking cessation progroam for grandparents parenting their grandkids

Program chosen:-  Program #2: Smoking cessation program

Group chosen to target: - Grandparents parenting their grandkids

Where to market the program: - Neighborhoods and groups in low income groups and not access healthcare easily.

‘In the most recent Census Bureau statistics, 2.4 million of the nation's families are maintained by grandparents who have one or more of their grandchildren living with them’, these are facts stated by the Ohio State University extension sheet. I would use the smoking cessation program to help the group of grandparents that are parenting grandkids or living with grandkids, young children of family.

According to Sarcella (2003) ‘children in grandparent care are in fact more likely to live in poverty and with a caregiver in poor health, but both groups experience similarly high levels of housing problems, food insecurity, and poor caregiver mental health’.

The program would focus to make the older generation aware of the health hazards of smoking to their health due to age, living conditions (low income group) and the nature of the habit. The program would also be aimed at making the group aware of the damage their smoking causes to the children around them, the hazards of second hand smoking which in some cases is even more than the first hand smoking.

According to Jendrek (1994) who did a detailed study on 114 grandparents parenting grandkids, usually the decision to parent grandkids is that of ‘impulse’ and mostly grandparents have offered to do so.

On the contrary Burton’s (1992) study on black grandparents and great grandparents who are having to raise grandchildren as a result of drugs addiction of their parents showed results where grandparents felt stress in psychological, physical and financial aspects of their lives. However, most of them reported that the experience was enriching to them.

Smoking can result in such a situation where grandparents end up being in an unexpected situation, and especially if they were smokers some years back then they are capable of picking up the habit again. Al’Absi et al (2005) study shows that increased level of stress can be a reason for a smoking relapse and biological, psychological changes can be a contributing factor to it.

This group will be hard to approach comparatively to a group in a different age group since breaking a habit, understanding a negative health behavior is harder at on older age. Smoking is a stimulant of many chronic diseases would be the first awareness that this group needs. I would approach them with the viewpoint that their health being damaged will not only affect them but also put their grandkids in an unfavorable situations like being put into foster care, instability and loss of a loved one. If we consider that many grandparents offer to care for grandkids, this may appeal to them.

Referencse :-

al’Absi, M., Hatsukami, D., & Davis, G. L. (2005). Attenuated adrenocorticotropic responses to psychological stress are associated with early smoking relapse. Psychopharmacology, 181(1), 107-117.

Burton, L. M. (1992). Black grandparents rearing children of drug-addicted parents: Stressors, outcomes, and social service needs. The Gerontologist,32(6), 744-751.

Jendrek, M. P. (1994). Grandparents who parent their grandchildren: Circumstances and decisions. The Gerontologist, 34(2), 206-216.

Scarcella, C. A. (2003). Identifying and addressing the needs of children in grandparent care. Age, 5(29), 11.

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