Pediatric Cancer

1. Potential impacts of having pediatric cancer on education and academic success

This week I had my eight year old daughter home with as she had a stomach bug. She is a child who thrives at school and wakes up every morning full of energy to go to school. She was so sad that she had to miss school for so many days. This made me just imagine the stress, the impact chronic illnesses have on young children and their families in reference to academic achievement.

St.Jude children’s hospital reports that, cancer today, is still the leading cause of death among children ages 1 and up. This year around 3,000 children will be diagnosed with Leukemia (a cancer of white blood cells) and causes are still mostly unknown. The good news is that survival rate among childhood cancer has moved up to 80% from 20% in 1960s.

Diagnosis and treatment procedures of pediatric cancer can have an impact on the patients as well as their families. The impact is felt on emotional well being of the children and on their academic achievements (Drotar et al, 2006). According to Newacheck et al (1992) chronic illnesses among children can have varying impacts from high to low, however, some impact is inevitable. The impact of the illness varies with the intensity of the treatment and health conditions, with respiratory and cancer being in the lead.

Sexson & Madan-Swain (1993) highlight that being absent from school due to hospitalizations, doctor’s visits is part of adjustments and stressors that children with cancer have to deal with. Reentry into the school after an absence can be challenging that young children find an anxiety or stress trigger.

The impact of pediatric cancer can be on academic success and on other activities that are part of school life.   Noll et al (1999) used a case control method to understand the emotional well being of children suffering from any kind of cancer. They concluded that these children scored well on the emotional well being but reported low satisfaction on ‘athletic competence’. Education is more than just books, good grades and children with cancer feel an effect of their illness from different angles.

2. Two ways pediatric cancer can impact peer relationships

Trask et al (2003) study highlights the importance of peer and close family relations. Adolescents report feeling less stressed when they experienced positive correlations with their peers and close friends. They also express that their close friends are their strongest source of adaptability and social support. The role of peer relationships cannot be undermined in lives of normal adolescents, and its impact on children with cancer is equally important.  

I have always believed that there is a certain maturity that comes from enduring a trauma and as unfair it seems for a child to suffer from cancer, it brings about a certain maturity in these children. I wanted to discuss another side of the picture as well. Adolescents suffering from cancer or have survived cancer are capable of viewing or feeling about peer relations unlike others.

Noll et al (1993) evaluated the psychosocial adaptations of adolescents with cancer who were going through treatment or off treatment. Their study show that adolescents who battle cancer report from feeling isolated but also express as not being affected by it. The study also found these adolescents similar to their peers on ‘numerous psychological function’.

3. One strategy a school may use to support a student with pediatric cancer

Forming a support group or holding sessions off campus and out of regular school hours is the best way to help children get academic strength. Bluebond-Langer et al (1991) write about using the strategy of offering summer camps specifically for pediatric cancer patients. They report that though the peer relationships children make at these camps are not the same as with health peers, but still children value these relations. It gives them an advantage that they would not have without them.

References

Bluebond-Langer, M., Perkel, D., & Goertzel, T. (1991). Pediatric cancer patients' peer relationships: The impact of an oncology camp experience.Journal of Psychosocial Oncology, 9(2), 67-80.

Drotar, D., Witherspoon, D. O., & Zebracki, K., Psychological interventions in childhood chronic illness. Copyright 2006 American Psychological Association Books. Used with permission from American Psychological Association via the Copyright Clearance Center. 

Newacheck, P. W., & Taylor, W. R. (1992). Childhood chronic illness: prevalence, severity, and impact. American Journal of public health, 82(3), 364-371.

Noll, R. B., Bukowski, W. M., Davies, W. H., Koontz, K., & Kulkarni, R. (1993). Adjustment in the peer system of adolescents with cancer: A two-year study.Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 18(3), 351-364.

Noll, R. B., Gartstein, M. A., Vannatta, K., Correll, J., Bukowski, W. M., & Davies, W. H. (1999). Social, emotional, and behavioral functioning of children with cancer. Pediatrics, 103(1), 71-78.

Sexson, S. B., & Madan-Swain, A. (1993). School reentry for the child with chronic illness. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 26(2), 115-137.

St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital and Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis. (2012). St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Washington University Pediatric Cancer Genome Project. Pediatric Cancer Genome Project. Retrieved fromhttp://www.pediatriccancergenomeproject.org/site/press-release

Trask, P. C., Paterson, A. G., Trask, C. L., Bares, C. B., Birt, J., & Maan, C. (2003). Parent and adolescent adjustment to pediatric cancer: associations with coping, social support, and family function. Journal of Pediatric Oncology Nursing, 20(1), 36-47.

Body’s response to stress

Body’s response to stress

Stress is experienced by everyone and is broadly defined as the ‘wear and tear of life’ (Breedlove & Watson, 2013). In the modern day researchers define stress as multidimensional theory that includes stress stimuli, stress processing system and the body’s responses to stress (Breedlove & Watson, 2013).

Body’s response to a stimuli causing stress has multiple stages. The initial stage is called the ‘alarm reaction’ which triggers the hypothalamus and the sympathetic nervous system. This prepares the body for action and is commonly also called the ‘flight or fight’ system (Breedlove & Watson, 2013). Flight or fight also starts the release of hormones epinephrine (also called adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline) by stimulation of the adrenal gland. These hormones then further actions of breathing, heart rate and other bodily processes needed for action (Breedlove &Watson, 2013). As part of alarm stage, the hypothalamus activates the pituitary gland and releases a hormone that drives the outer layer of the adrenal gland (Breedlove &Watson, 2013). According to Selye (the researcher whose work initiated the recent stress theories) the alarm stage is followed by the ‘adaptation stage’ which brings the body back to normal balance and physiological conditions. This is how stress is handled by the body with success.

Prolonged stress

An ‘exhaustion stage’ may occur if the stress is consistent and prolonged (Breedlove & Watson, 2013). This can lead to decreased immunity and increased weakness to disease susceptibility. According to Van der Kolk et al (1996) Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) provides a ‘framework’ to understand the effects of prolonged or extreme stress on the body. 

Individual differences in recovering from stress

‘Stress immunization’ refers to the theory that mild stress in early life equips a person to handle stress in later life in a better way (Breedlove & Watson, 2013). This theory implies that a person’s early life can have an impact on their abilities to handle and cope with stress in later life. Some researchers connect stress immunization to the parental response to the handling of stress in early life. In early life,  parental nurturing after stress may create a basis for stress coping mechanisms in adult life. This theory is an example of individual differences when recovering from stress biologically.

Lifestyle and habits can have an impact on an individual’s ability to recover from stress. Research has proven that a healthy lifestyle that includes an exercise routine, healthy eating habits lead to a happier life (Lehmann & Herkenham, 2011). An example would be a mother of three young kids who works full time compared to another mother of three kids who is not working. The working mother does not get enough time to have an exercise routine, while the non working mother gets the few extra hours to make exercise part of life. If we keep the theory of exercise neutralizing stress in mind, then we can assume that a working mother may have more difficulty recovering from stress compared to the non working mother. Looking at the same scenario from another angle we assume that the working mother has a passion for her work and it is her stress reliever. The non working mother has had to convince herself not to work and be around for her children. If she views this as a compromise then the stress maybe building and coping with stress maybe difficult. When this model is narrated we understand that psychological recovery from stress can differ from one person to another in many ways

References

Lehmann, M. L., & Herkenham, M. (2011). Environmental enrichment confers stress resiliency to social defeat through an infralimbic cortex-dependent neuroanatomical pathway. The Journal of Neuroscience, 31(16), 6159-6173.

 Van der Kolk, B. A., McFarlane, A. C., & Weisaeth, L. (Eds.). (1996).Traumatic stress: The effects of overwhelming experience on mind, body, and society. Guilford Press.

How metabolic rate changes calorie intake

How metabolic rate changes calorie intake

Metabolism refers to all those processes in the body that convert or use energy (National Institute of Health, NIH) like breathing, body temperature, digesting food and more similar actions. Metabolic rate also known as basal metabolic rate is the amount of energy expended in a given period of time. Calorie intake is the food that we eat and just like a car burns gas to run, our body burns the food we eat (Breedlove &Watson, 2013). The metabolic rate changes with calorie intake and fluctuates with over or under nutrition. This is the reason for resistance that may build to weight loss or gain (Breedlove & Watson, 2013). Some research has shown that calorie reduced diets causes a reduction in metabolic rate that leads to ‘prevention’ of weight loss. Though there is no clear basis understood yet, but a reduction in calories has shown longevity of life as found by Koubova & Guarente (2003). They argue that some past research points towards ‘molecular pathways’ that effect aging, but a concrete basis is still unknown.

Four influences on body weight

a)      Genetics

The role of genetics is crucial in obesity and dual with reference to effects of culture, mutations on body weight (Barsh et al, 2000). Bouchard (1997) found in his study on male twins that specific genes and ‘molecular markers’ are involved in usually observable human fat population. It is common observation that people who are obese have parents who have struggled with obesity as well. This may be due to unhealthy eating habits and lifestyle that individuals learns from early childhood.  

b)      Age

Age plays a part in obesity as metabolic rate slows down due to slowed oxygen intake, nucleotide substitution and changes in muscle tendencies (Martin & Palumbi, 1993). Researchers have well established that as a person’s age increases, the ability to lose weight decreases. There are also some specific body changes that happen with age. Bodily changes during adolescence, pregnancy or as a result of Post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) that can influence body weight.

c)       Gender

According to Krotkiewski et al (1983) there is difference in tissue distribution between men and women. This difference may impact the fat distribution difference as well among men and women. Factors like weight gain during menopause, PMS bloating and post pregnancy weight gain are exclusive to women as well.

d)      Psychological health

An emotional eater is one who either eats more than normal or less than normal as a response to an emotional setback or emotional trauma. A person’s psychological health can affect their eating habits, their motivation to exercise (highly important to avoid weight gain) or their physical health.

Cultural influences on eating disorders

According to Brown (1991) human obesity is best understood when studied in context of biological and cultural development. He emphasizes that examination of effects of cross culture dynamics is the key to understanding the prevalence of obesity in the modern day.

I come from a culture where the idea of a ‘joint family system’ is very common. This means older parents either reside with their children or first, second and third generations all live together. Eating as a family is crucial to this kind of a family system. Similar is the case in Asian, Hispanic and Middle Eastern cultures as well. In some families it is a matter if etiquettes to eat and even appreciate with is being cooked, served by an elder of the family. As unfair it seems, it is considered rather impolite to have food separately cooked despite issues like obesity or weight gain. It is not unusual to find older generation women like grandmothers cooking food which is not very high on a healthy standard. This can happened due to a generation gap or unawareness that exists in their generation. I think this is a clear example of how a culture can influence eating disorders.

References

Barsh, G. S., Farooqi, I. S., & O'Rahilly, S. (2000). Genetics of body-weight regulation. Nature, 404(6778), 644-651.

Bouchard, C. (1997). Genetic determinants of regional fat distribution. Human reproduction, 12(suppl 1), 1-5.

Krotkiewski, M., Björntorp, P., Sjöström, L., & Smith, U. (1983). Impact of obesity on metabolism in men and women. Importance of regional adipose tissue distribution. Journal of Clinical Investigation, 72(3), 1150.

Koubova, J., & Guarente, L. (2003). How does calorie restriction work?. Genes & development, 17(3), 313-321.

Brown, P. J. (1991). Culture and the evolution of obesity. Human Nature, 2(1), 31-57.

Martin, A. P., & Palumbi, S. R. (1993). Body size, metabolic rate, generation time, and the molecular clock. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 90(9), 4087-4091.

Meaning of Metabolism, National Institute of Health (NIH). Retrieved from  http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002257.htm

‘Life span of President Barack Obama’

                     Final Project- ‘Life span of President Barack Obama’

By Aysha Siddiqui.

Lifespan Development (PSYC 6215-3)

Walden University

Abstract

This paper examines the life of a famous person who has had an impact on the lives of others and on society. The person chosen for this paper is President Barack Obama whose life and presidency of USA has made history in his own country as well as the world. His actions have an impact on the millions living in his country as well as his actions, thoughts and decisions impact relations between countries, conditions of people in the world.

Barack Obama’s life is a perfect cast study of nature, nurture influences, social and cognitive development and life’s experiences having an effect on shaping a person’s life. Another very relevant factor in the biography of Barack Obama is diversity that lies not only in his life, but in the society he belongs to, in his background and in his life.

Introduction

Barack H. Obama is the 44^th President of the United States and the first African American president to hold this office. He was born on August 4, 1961 in Hawaii. His mother was from Kansas and his father was from Kenya. He was raised by his grandfather who worked in the Patton’s army and his grandmother who worked hard to progress from a secretarial to a management position at a bank.

He worked and studied hard to earn scholarships and with help of student loans, scholarships he worked his way through college and moved to Chicago. He was very active in his work with churches in the city of Chicago and in helping communities that were adversely affected by the closure of local steel plants.

In his lifetime being the first black President is not the first time he has been outstanding because of his diversity. He was the first ever African American to be the President of the Harvard Law Review when he went to the Harvard Law School. He is also among the first few African Americans to serve in the US Senate and in 2003 was the fifth African American person to be elected in the Senate.

He is married to Michelle Obama and they have two daughters, Malia, 14 and Sasha, 10.

Barack Obama impact on society and the world

David Ewalt reports for Forbes magazine that ‘U.S. President Barack Obama emerged, unanimously, as the world’s most powerful person’. Barack Obama has held office of the President of the United States for more than five years, reelected for that position in 2012. This makes him the ‘commander in chief of the world’s greatest military’. This puts him in not only in a very strong decision making position where his decisions can impact people and societies around him as well as in places across borders.

There is however another angle to his persona and how it influences the society. He is no doubt one of the most appealing and influential person because of his life experiences, leadership and his character. Marx et al (2009) studied the ‘Obama Effect’ on four separate groups of Black and White American participants and observed them for three months. When Obama’s election to being the first Black American president defied all stereotyping and he made his convention speech, there was observed a significantly enhanced performance on exams by the sample group.

His influence grows to his family as well and how they impact not just individuals, but also families around them. Young parents look up to Obama and his wife as parents, as the caretakers of their children’s futures as he inspires them to do so with his leadership and his ideology.

 Abc news featured an article from Obama on father’s day and he writes ‘we show our children by example who we want them to become’. The article highlights that the letter Barack Obama wrote to his two daughters telling them about his hopes for them and for the children of America gained world popularity because of its content and influence.

    

Nature and Nurture Influence

Nurture has played a very major role in the life of Barack Obama and contributed majorly to who he is today. In his words ‘I was raised by a single mom and my grandparents…………they gave me love, a thirst for education, and a belief that we're all part of something larger than ourselves’ (grandparents.com). Barack Obama’s grandparents had a great influence on him since he was a young baby, as his parents separated months after he was born and his grandparents stepped up to help their young daughter help raise their grandson, Barack Obama. The financial means that his family (parents and grandparents) had also contributed to how he started thinking at a young age. Mendell (2008) writes that his parents and grandparents were with ‘modest means’ and Obama did not grow up with lots of ‘material wealth’ and that’s why he is now aware, sensitive to the middle class daily concerns because he has grown up with those.

On a personal front nature and nurture, both played a role in his life growing when he struggled with his multiracial heritage. If we look at the nature of his genes, then we see that his father was from Kenya and ‘black as pitch’ as described by Obama himself and mother was ‘white as milk’ (Obama, early life and career). He also admits to using marijuana and other drugs to push these questions out of his mind during his teenage years.

Obama was nurtured in his growing years by his grandparents and if they hadn’t taught him what they did by example, attitude towards life and by words then he wouldn’t have been the same man today.  Wead (2011) looks into the work of Freud and established how the women in Obama’s life made an influence on his life when growing up. Freud has the psychological dictum that a young toddler, especially male who has been his mom’s favorite can ‘conquer the world’. The study talks about a picture of Obama as a toddler sitting on the fence and his mom holding him. The picture depicts unconditional love, affection and trust, showing a strong connection between the two.

Role of cognitive, physical, and social-emotional development/changes

Physical changes are of utmost importance in Barack Obama’s life considering his multiracial heritage. He had a white mother and grandparents who raised him and he clearly looked of African American origin. His social surroundings were a vital factor as well, though he was in one of the ‘many hued’ place ( Maraniss, 2008).  After Hawaii, Obama moved to Chicago and this was a place of geographic and social influence. According to Maraniss (2008) Barack Obama got his shape from the ‘forces’ in Hawaii but it was the forces of Chicago that actually shaped him. In Chicago, Obama got involved in work with the churches to help the ones being effected by closing of Hawaii is about the forces that shaped him, and Chicago is about how he reshaped himself. His social development was highly influenced by his move to Chicago where he learnt to make important decisions and choices that taught him how to survive in his adult life, how to handle politics and where he found his abilities to help people, community when he worked with the churches to restore the ones losing jobs.

Diversity

No example can better than Barack Obama for diversity and its role in the life, success and development of a famous person. He grew up carrying, racial, religious, geographic and social diversity unlike almost everyone around him. This probably even contributed to his popularity and his success at winning the elections to the first Black American president of the United States. Obama’s family tree has roots of Kenya, Muslim, Christian, African, American and even English ancestors. Von Zambusch (2010) writes that Barack Obama finds strength in the diversity that he carries, as he understands the points of view of many different kinds of people then. He has relatives that live around the world who belong to different faiths and religions. He seems to have embraced his diversity in a very proper manner as he clearly has a strong sense of who he is. This was crucial to survive the challenges of being the president of United States and winning against competitors in that race who were always ready to attack his diverse background.

                                                            Conclusion

Barack Obama and his life is a case study now and will be for many more years as his Presidency has created history. His decisions, actions and simple words can make an influence on his fellow citizens, himself, his family and maybe even generations to come. Learning his life span and his development from a social psychologist’s point of view can bring out such interesting aspects of development that can be basis for lots of new research.

References:-

Ewalt. D. (2012) The World’s Most Powerful People. Forbes. Dec, 12, 2012.

Freud, S., & Wead, D. (2011). Women Who Shaped Obama. Barack Obama in Hawai'i and Indonesia: The Making of a Global President: The Making of a Global President, 55.

Maraniss, D. (2008). Though Obama had to leave to find himself, it is Hawaii that made his rise possible. The Washington Post.

Marx, D. M., Ko, S. J., & Friedman, R. A. (2009). The “Obama Effect”: How a salient role model reduces race-based performance differences. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45(4), 953-956.

Mendell, D. (2008). Obama: From promise to power. HarperCollins.

Obama, B. (2009). We Need Fathers to Step Up. Parade, 4-5.

Obama, B. Early life and career. Barack Obama, 238.

Von Zumbusch, A. (2010). Barack Obama's Family Tree: Roots of Achievement. The Rosen Publishing Group.

http://www.whitehouse.gov/administration/president-obama

Amnesia due to Emotional Trauma

Introduction

Memory is the ability to retain and then recover new information, and amnesia is an impairment of memory (Breedlove & Watson, 2013). Research has shown that amnesia can be caused by head trauma and damage to the hippocampus, mammillary bodies and dorsal thalamus. These regions of the brain are required to form ‘declarative memories’, those memories that can be shown to others. Henry Molaison, known to the world as patient H.M. is probably the most famous subject in the study of amnesia and inability to make new memories due to brain trauma. In 1953, , Henry's neurosurgeon removed most of the ‘anterior temporal lobes’ in his brain to cure Henry’s out of control epilepsy and seizures (Breedlove & Watson, 2013). The surgery helped with the seizures, but Henry lost the ability to make new memories. This condition is called retrograde amnesia when the loss of memory is that of more recent events compared to remote events. Nadel & Moscovitch (1997) found in their research evidence in past studies of retrograde amnesia following damage to the hippocampal complex of humans. They also conclude that the amount of loss of memory depends upon the kind of memory is being assessed.

Research has shown that head trauma and injury can cause amnesia, but there is another controversial theory. Some experts have concluded that emotional trauma can be a reason for amnesia as well. However, this theory is under question as compared to the well established theory of amnesia caused by head trauma.

In this paper, we examine research done on the theory that emotional trauma can be a cause of amnesia. We look at the neurological reasons behind this theory and the pros and cons of this issue.

Amnesia caused by emotional trauma

Emotional trauma or trauma is defined as a response to an appalling event like an accident, rape or natural disaster (American Psychological Association, APA). Behavior of denial and shock is a typical response following the event and in some cases many years after the event. Joseph (1999) after his research on past articles about amnesia argues that memory loss after ‘severe stress and emotional trauma’ are not uncommon. This is usually due to the ‘gluco steroids’ and stress associated with the hippocampus region in the brain that plays a vital role in memory storage. He says that the intensity of amnesia depends upon factors like repetition of the traumatic event, severity and the duration of the trauma.

Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) has often been connected to amnesia as a result of emotional trauma. In past studies, there was no substantial mechanism to measure PTSD and neurogenic amnesia. However, contemporary research give an in depth view of memory and have found the basis for dual diagnosis of PTSD combined with amnesia (Layton & Wardi-Zonna, 1995).

Breuer and Freud (1893-1895/1955) affirmed that repression is a ‘cognitive inhibition’ process that the person who faced the trauma uses. This causes amnesia of the traumatic event for the time being, but memory of the event is not eradicated entirely. They argue that these memories move into the ‘unconscious’ and are released through personality disorders, states of hysteria or PTSD (Shobe & Kihlstrom, 2007). The view point of suppressed memories or repression that can cause amnesia is popular among experts helping rape victim war survivors, PTSD sufferers as result of events like 9/11.

Do I believe that amnesia can be caused by emotional trauma?

Yes, I do believe that amnesia can be caused by emotional trauma. However, this can vary depending on the kind of trauma (e.g. amnesia suffered by war survivors or by childhood abuse survivors), duration and most definitely on the coping abilities of the sufferer. Amnesia can be used as a dominant defense mechanism against the emotional trauma. Freyd (1994) made the argument that ‘psychogenic amnesia’ is a tool a child may use to maintain a relationship and attachment to a figure that may have abused them. When these abused children grow older amnesia enables them to cope with the emotional arrests they feel with their abuser who may have violated some basic ethics of human relationships.

If survivors of emotional trauma seek help and it is successful, then the scenario of psychogenic amnesia may possibly change. Coping abilities of individuals who have suffered from emotional trauma can play a role. Some survivors are able to carry on normal life with slight effects on their behavior from the emotional trauma. In this case,  the amnesia is more helpful than being harmful and does not require help. When coping abilities are not sufficient, and PTSD develops and professional help is needed, amnesia maybe treated. The memories of emotional trauma may need revival for successful treatment of behavioral and mental conditions. Amnesia caused by emotional trauma and the continuation of this psychogenic amnesia is subject to change. I understand what Freud and Breuer declared that memories of emotional trauma travel to unconscious but are never completely abolished.

Phenomenon explained in neurologic terms

Gilbertson et al (2002) study showed that in animals exposure to stress regularly causes damage to the hippocampus and effects memory. In human studies also a smaller hippocampal is seen when suffering from posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Their study involved pairs of twins with one group of twins who suffered from PTSD and the other did not. They in fact, did find a negative relation between the severity of PTSD and hippocampal volume, size. Some researchers have suggested that amnesia is a ‘disconnection syndrome’ and impairment is found for that material in memory which requires conscious remembering (Warrington and Weiskrantz, 1982). Some significant researches show that amnesia occurs when there  are severe neurological effects on the mesial temporal lobes.

Doubts cast by researches on the validity of psychological amnesia, some pros and cons

Joseph, R. (1998) proposed in his study that amnesia caused by trauma is ‘secondary to abnormal neocortical and hippocampal arousal’ According to him other factors like age, sex difference and stress in daily life before and after the trauma play a role in how much memory is lost of the event. On the other hand,  some researchers believe that the best mechanism to understand the hippocampal function is to study the amnesia caused by traumatic events (Cohen et al, 1999). In the past researchers have conducted research to show how memory is lost, affected and then retrieved due to emotional trauma. Many studies have also concluded that there is still much room for more research and study on this topic. The doubts expressed are mostly based on the viewpoint that there is a thin line between amnesia and memory loss (Sweet et al, 2008). To understand the amnesia caused by emotional trauma, it is important to understand this distinction.

References

Cohen, N. J., Ryan, J., Hunt, C., Romine, L., Wszalek, T., & Nash, C. (1999). Hippocampal system and declarative (relational) memory: summarizing the data from functional neuroimaging studies. Hippocampus, 9(1), 83-98.

Freyd, J. J. (1994). Betrayal trauma: Traumatic amnesia as an adaptive response to childhood abuse. Ethics & Behavior, 4(4), 307-329.

Gilbertson, M. W., Shenton, M. E., Ciszewski, A., Kasai, K., Lasko, N. B., Orr, S. P., & Pitman, R. K. (2002). Smaller hippocampal volume predicts pathologic vulnerability to psychological trauma. Nature Neuroscience, 5, 1242–1247. Retrieved from http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v5/n11/abs/nn958.html

Hass, D. C., & Ross, G. S. (1986). Transient global amnesia triggered by mild head trauma. Brain, A Journal of Neurology, 109(2), 251-257.

Layton, B. S., & Wardi-Zonna, K. (1995). Posttraumatic stress disorder with neurogenic amnesia for the traumatic event. The Clinical Neuropsychologist,9(1), 2-10.

Joseph, R. (1998). Traumatic amnesia, repression, and hippocampus injury due to emotional stress, corticosteroids and enkephalins. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 29(2), 169-185.

Joseph, R. (1999). The neurology of traumatic “dissociative” amnesia: Commentary and literature review. Child Abuse Neglect, 23, 715-727.

Nadel, L., & Moscovitch, M. (1997). Memory consolidation, retrograde amnesia and the hippocampal complex. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 7(2), 217-227.

Shobe, K. K., & Kihlstrom, J. F. (2007). Is traumatic Memory special? Retrieved from http://ist-socrates.berkeley.edu/~kihlstrm/special.htm

Sweet, J. J., Condit, D. C., & Nelson, N. W. (2008). Feigned amnesia and memory loss. Clinical Assessment of Malingering and Deception, 218-236.

Von Cramon, D. Y., Hebel, N., & Schuri, U. (1985). A contribution to the anatomical basis of thalamic amnesia. Brain, 108(4), 993-1008.

Sports versus Video games: Which contributes more to a child’s IQ?

Introduction

The amount of time children spend in playing organized sports is twice the amount they spend in free play (The American Academy of Pediatrics, AAP, 2013). Physical activity has been linked to good physical and mental health in children and teenagers for many years (Oliver et al, 2007). The new century and the new generation are seeing another choice of activity by the children which is video games. Children and their parents find themselves often making the choice between video games or organized sports as a past time for the children (Strasburger & Donnerstein, 1999).

Duncan (1985) writes that ‘background affects ambition, and ambition affects IQ’. Sports and video games, both activities work with ambition, goals and an aim to achieve something. The benefits of physical activity on a child’s mental, physical health have been found in the past few years (Janssen & LeBlanc, 2010). The extent of these benefits has yet to be understood, especially when looked at in the perspective of IQ increase. A lot of research has been conducted on the effects of video games on children’s behavior like aggression, lack of empathy. However, we do not find much constructive research conducted on the effects of video games on children’s IQ. An average child spends about 13 hours per week playing video games (American Psychological Association, APA). This research aims at understanding if a connection is present between a child’s IQ and playing either a sport (physical activity) or video games (media, iPAD, Xbox, Play station etc.).

Background

Anderson (2004) noted a relationship between an increase in aggressive behavior, aggressive cognition and exposure to violent video games. Addictive and ‘desensitizing’ behavior among youth who spend time playing video games has also been observed in past research (Funk et al, 2003). On the contrary, Gee (2005) argues that good video games leads to good learning, they challenge a child’s mind and enhances motivation to achieve. His argument is based on the choice of video games and more importantly, place where games are played. He concludes with a question if video games are taken to the classroom, is there enhancement in intelligence? This is what this research attempts to understand that if the intelligence is actually enhanced by playing video games or by indulging in physical activity.

The Athletics Association suggests that participation in sports in high school shows positive effects on personality of students (Roger Rees et al, 1990). The study conducted by Roger Rees, (1990) ends without finding enough evidence to support the argument that ‘sports build character’ and with room for further research to understand the affect of playing sports on children’s thinking. Clark (2008) defines sport as ‘mainly team or organized activity’ such as soccer, competitive swimming, baseball, basketball or hockey. Factors like socioeconomic status, ethnicity, family’s support are crucial for younger children, ages 7-11 years old to be involved in sport (Clark, 2008). Parents’ attitudes towards sports, is the strongest link to how much interest and ambition young children shows towards sports, according to Clark (2008). We find substantial research on how children interest in sports, but not many studies that highlight the affects sports have on the intelligence of children, ages 7-11 years old. A relevant study was conducted by Buck et al (2008) that tested the relationship of aerobic fitness to task performance in preadolescent children. Other data like IQ, personal health records were also taken into account and concluded that aerobics fitness may have benefits to cognitive development in preadolescent age. This study however did not look at the topic comparatively as we do with video games. A connection between physical activity and mental development has been found in some studies. However, a contribution of sports to mental development has not been researched extensively yet.

Problem 

An assessment of past and to date literature reveals that children ages, 7-11 years old are either spending sufficient hours in a week either playing video games (on media, computer or personal devices) or in playing sports. How does each activity contribute to the personality development, IQ and behavior of the children is the question of our research.

Research Questions & Hypotheses

In this study,  we first assess the IQ of two separate groups of children, ages 7-11. The first group is of children who spend at least 10-12 hours a week playing organized sports and probably play video games sporadically. The second group of children is kids, ages 7-11, who spend 10-12 hours a week playing video games and sports are played leisurely. The first goal is to compare the IQ of these two different groups of children. Second goal is to check if their choice of activity is what determines their level of IQ. Finally, the third goal is to see a link between the behavior (negative and positive), social skills, attitude and exposure to either activity i.e. sports or video games.

We predict that children who are involved in sports on a regular basis have better social skills, controlled behavior and higher IQ compared to those children who consume more time in playing video games. We are also assuming that adolescent behavioral problems occur more often among the group of children who play video games compared to the group involved in sports.

Theoretical Framework

Alfred Binet, the founder of the first IQ test that were usable to test intelligence of young children, Binet along with a medical student, Theodore developed these tests on request of the French government to understand demands of school going children’s education needs (Terman, 1961). For ten years starting in 1894, Binet defined intelligence as something vague and just a matter of ‘knowing’ something based on individual differences (Varon, 1936). In 1905, when he developed the IQ tests he highlighted the aspect of attitudes used to measure IQ. According to Broody (2000), Binet was intrigued by the ‘idiographic complexity’ of intelligence present in each person’s life.

This is what we are basing our hypothesis on that intelligence can measured through standard tests, but it varies in individuals especially among children subject to the more than a few factors. Binet also rejected the theory of mental age since most of his work was aimed at testing the needs of retarded children.

References

Anderson, C. A. (2004). An update on the effects of playing violent video games.Journal of adolescence, 27(1), 113-122.

Brody, N. (2000). History of theories and measurements of intelligence.Handbook of intelligence, 16-33.

Clark, W. (2008). Kids’ sports. Canadian Social Trends, 85, 54-61.

Duncan, O. D. (1985). Path analysis: Sociological examples. Causal models in the social sciences, 55-79.

Funk, J. B., Buchman, D. D., Jenks, J., & Bechtoldt, H. (2003). Playing violent video games, desensitization, and moral evaluation in children. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 24(4), 413-436.

Gee, J. P. (2005). Good video games and good learning. In Phi Kappa Phi Forum (Vol. 85, No. 2, p. 33). THE HONOR SOCIETY OF PHI KAPPA PHI.

Janssen, I., & LeBlanc, A. G. (2010). Review Systematic review of the health benefits of physical activity and fitness in school-aged children and youth.International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 7(40), 1-16.

Oliver, M., Schofield, G. M., & Kolt, G. S. (2007). Physical activity in preschoolers. Sports Medicine, 37(12), 1045-1070.

Roger Rees, C., Howell, F. M., & Miracle, A. W. (1990). Do high school sports build character? A quasi-experiment on a national sample. The Social Science Journal, 27(3), 303-315.

Sports Specialization, Hours Spent in Organized Sports May Predict Young Athlete Injury, American Academy of Pediatrics, 2013. Retrieved from- http://www.aap.org/en-us/about-the-aap/aap-press-room/pages/Sports-Specialization,-Hours-Spent-in-Organized-Sports-May-Predict-Young-Athlete-Injury.aspx

Strasburger, V. C., & Donnerstein, E. (1999). Children, adolescents, and the media: issues and solutions. Pediatrics, 103(1), 129-139.

Terman, L. M., & Merrill, M. E. (1961). Measuring Intelligence.

Varon, E. J. (1936). Alfred Binet's concept of intelligence. Psychological Review, 43(1), 32.

Asthma among refugee children

The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that by 2013 about 1.5 million Syrian refugees will be in Lebanon, Jordan, Egypt and other neighboring countries (El-Khatib et al, 2013). Among these refugees about 75% are under age 18 and are most vulnerable for health problems. For the past few months I have been looking at tremendous efforts made to get financial and medical aid to children suffering in camps of Syria. In order to give a broader perspective to our discussion post this week, I would like to approach this week’s topic from a global view point.

Asthma is a ‘chronic lung disease that inflames and narrows the airways’ (National Institute of Health, NIH). Symptoms of asthma include wheezing, chest tightness, shortness of breath, and coughing. Today about 25 million people suffer from Asthma, among which about 7 million are children (www.epa.org, learning resources). According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Asthma fact sheet, asthma is one of the most chronic childhood diseases and third biggest cause of hospitalization for children.

In 2011, the International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood (ISAAC) released The Global Asthma Report 2011. This report showed an increase in the numbers of childhood, adolescent asthma patients. The increased numbers maybe due to many reasons but in my opinion there are some environmental factors that could be the major contributors to the increased prevalence.

In the last semester when I wrote a paper on Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) suffered by those who were involved in the tragedy of 9/11 (directly or through the loss, trauma of a loved one) I found in my research development of asthma as a major PTSD symptom among this population. In the beginning of this discussion I mentioned Syrian refugees among who a major number is of young people. El-Sharif et al (2002) found that children living in refugee camps are at a higher risk of developing asthma as compared to those living in cities. Situations like refugee camps, children and adolescents living in refugee camps or not having access to healthcare have occurred often in the past few years globally. This has had a direct impact on the diseases that young people are prone to. Similarly, tragic events like 9/11 have increased PTSD cases with conditions like chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and asthma. According to Davidson et al (1991) PTSD is associated with breathing problems and asthma attacks with an increased frequency of attacks when suffering from PTSD.

For adolescents, children life today is more active, demanding than it was until a decade ago maybe. Issues like cyber bullying, texting and social media maybe a considerably new phenomena but it is not uncommon. With development of these new technology mechanisms there has also been an increase in cases of anxiety, depression and behavioral problems among adolescents (O'Keeffe et al, 2011). Research has shown that anxiety increases the frequency of asthma attacks among children and adolescents (Richardson et al, 2006). Dealing with these social and peer pressures are probably triggers, reasons of higher rate of asthma cases among young people.   

Educating the parents/ guardians of children and adolescents is a primary step in getting the asthma situation under control. In case of adolescents it is essential that a strong support system is also created among the peers of the patient as this is the age when peer supports matters to almost all adolescents. Social acceptance is crucial to this age group and if parents are made to understand this, then they can be in a compatible mentality with their children. This balance and understanding by parents can have effects on handling the disease by the parents/ guardians as well as the adolescents. An integral step for this education would be to make a referral of a psychologist or therapist to the parents of adolescents suffering from asthma. Family counseling in these cases can be very helpful and educating.

For parents of young children it is crucial that there is an understanding of the disease, its symptoms and most importantly its triggers. In developing and under developed countries parents/ guardians are not educated about the disease and non compliance is not uncommon ( Wilkinson, 1994). 

Also, in these regions triggers like smoking, dust mites or factors like anxiety , stress is not possible to be controlled due to living conditions and lack of education.

References

Davidson, J. R., Hughes, D., Blazer, D. G., & George, L. K. (1991). Post-traumatic stress disorder in the community: an epidemiological study. Psychol Med, 21(3), 713-721.

El-Khatib, Z., Scales, D., Vearey, J., & Forsberg, B. C. (2013). Syrian refugees, between rocky crisis in Syria and hard inaccessibility to healthcare services in Lebanon and Jordan. Conflict and health, 7(1), 18.

El-Sharif, N., Abdeen, Z., Qasrawi, R., Moens, G., & Nemery, B. (2002). Asthma prevalence in children living in villages, cities and refugee camps in Palestine. European Respiratory Journal, 19(6), 1026-1034.

O'Keeffe, G. S., & Clarke-Pearson, K. (2011). The impact of social media on children, adolescents, and families. Pediatrics, 127(4), 800-804.

 Richardson, L. P., Lozano, P., Russo, J., McCauley, E., Bush, T., & Katon, W. (2006). Asthma symptom burden: relationship to asthma severity and anxiety and depression symptoms. Pediatrics, 118(3), 1042-1051.

United States Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d). Asthma awareness month event planning kit (EPA 402-K-03-003). Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/asthma/pdfs/awm/event_planning_kit.pdf

Wilkinson, D. (1994). High-compliance tuberculosis treatment programme in a rural community. The Lancet, 343(8898), 64