Divisions of Brain that interest research psychologists

Divisions of Brain that interest research psychologists

By

Aysha Siddiqui.

Biopsychology,

Walden University

Introduction

The connection between brain and behavior has been long established by research. Though some psychologists believed until few years back that behavior should be studied in its own individuality (Catania & Gill, 1964), the importance of understanding the functions of the brain to understand the basis of behavior is well established.  Rachel Adelson (American Psychological Association, APA, 2002) writes that only by understanding the connection between different parts of the brain and their exact function that we can reach to the roots of many behavioral health problems.

The human brain is one of the most massive, intricate and appealing part of the body that relates to behavior. Several neurons in the brain produce a chemical reaction as a result of electrical signals that passes between them and this results in behavior (Breedlove & Watson, 2013). However, learning about the behavioral problems and how the brain functions around those behavioral health issues has more depth than this simple function of neurons. Research psychologists are the link between understanding the function of the brain, its structure and the important role it plays in behavior.

    Divisions of brain research psychologists are interested in

·         Neurons and Neurophysiology

Research psychologist would mainly be interested in those structures, functions of the brain that have been found to control, affect and cause behavior, emotions and feelings. According to LeDoux (1998) emotions are the result of the biological activity of the nervous system and ‘emotional brain’ is what the psychologists must study. The chemical exchange and transmission of electric sparks between neurons among many other perplexing things also is the reason for the emotions. In that way the study of the almost 10 billion neurons and the activity that surrounds them has to be the primary division of brain that research psychologists would be interested in.

·         Cerebral Cortex -Frontal, partial, occipital and temporal lobes)

Byrnes (2001) makes a point about the importance of learning the brain functions by the words Neisser (1967) that the brain for the psychologists is like the computer for a man who wants to learn how to ‘use’ the software and not what the hardware is made of. Same way the psychologists try to understand the reason for cognitive behavior rather than how it occurs. The researchers, however play a slightly different role who try to understand the reason for the behavior and actions. The Cerebral cortex is the uppermost structure of the brain (Byrnes, 2001) that’s responsible for movement, sensory information (hearing, visual etc.) and experiences retention like memory and learning. From educators who are involved in research to PTSD researchers and the research psychologists this division of the brain would be of importance and interest.

·         Neuroimaging techniques

As important it is for research psychologists to understand the various divisions of the brain, it is also of significance for them to understand that updated technology or methods used for looking at the function, structure of the brain. This includes all the different kinds of technology and methods used for obtaining the brain images. Other than Computed Tomography (CT) and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) research psychologists would benefit from the use of electroencephalogram (EEG) which tracks the electrical activity of the brain (Brynes, 2001). EEG has been beneficial in tracking.

·         Brain networks

Driver et al (2010) highlight in their study the extensive brain networks maybe underlying the cognition and spatial attention, so they should be studied in detail with help of imaging techniques by the researchers of behavior. They also imply on the importance of understanding the damaged brain due to injury or disability for research psychologist. The emphasis of Driver et al (2010) is especially on the frontal cortex, parietal cortex and connection to modulate sensory areas.

Divisions of brain of my interest

I am very interested in the development of brain and how young children’s thinking, behavior differs from adults. The minds of children are untainted by many things of the society unlike adults except some unfortunate little ones who have to face physical or mental trauma at a young age as well. I am appealed by the idea of helping young children who face traumas and suffer from PTSD and also by the less fortunate in this world who don’t have access to health care easily. Perry et al (1995) study reveals that a child’s brain differs in development from an adult and if a child faces any kind of emotional or mental trauma then the cues that the central nervous system receives from the environment, they are disrupted. A developing brain is highly dependent on the sets of the environment and ‘micro environmental cues’.

References

Byrnes, J. P. (2001). Minds, brains, and learning: understanding the psychological and educational relevance of neuroscientific research. Guilford Press.

Catania, A. C., & Gill, C. A. (1964). Inhibition and behavioral contrast. .Psychonomic Science.

Driver, J., Blankenburg, F., Bestmann, S., & Ruff, C. C. (2010). New approaches to the study of human brain networks underlying spatial attention and related processes. Experimental Brain Research, 206(2), 153-162.

LeDoux, J. (1998). The emotional brain: The mysterious underpinnings of emotional life. SimonandSchuster. com.

Perry, B. D., Pollard, R. A., Blakley, T. L., Baker, W. L., & Vigilante, D. (1995). Childhood trauma, the neurobiology of adaptation, and use dependent development of the brain? Infant Mental Health Journal, 16(4), 271-291.

Rachel Adelson (2002) Food for thought. American Psychological Association. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/monitor/julaug02/food.aspx

Facial feedback:Ten articles from Walden Library

Biopsychology of emotions; the facial feedback hypothesis of emotional experience

By

Aysha Siddiqui

Walden University

Abstract

This paper reviews ten articles from the Walden Library related to the facial feedback hypothesis of emotional experience. The peer reviewed articles range in topic and look at research on facial expression from various angles. The facial expression hypothesis of emotional experience research is reviewed in reference to gender specifics, age variations, disease or personality disorders and learning abilities. The paper concludes after we integrate our review of past research on facial feedback we find scope for further research in facial feedback hypothesis that may differ with subject to culture and lifestyle.

Introduction

Facial feedback hypothesis of emotional expression is the concept that facial expressions have a connection to emotions and provide the key to feelings (Azar, 2000). The face is one of the most affluent sources of communicating emotional and social information. It is also capable of spawning many expressions with all the muscles it is equipped with (Senechel et al, 2013). The facial feedback theory is an important part of many modern theories of emotions. The study of facial expression of emotion has also been focused on with theoretical controversy and pragmatic research. Ekman (1993) reviews if facial expressions really depict emotions and if they are culturally, universally specific.

Facial expression as an indication of emotions and feelings is not an uncommon phenomenon. In daily life to judge a person’s thoughts and feelings in connection with their facial expression is ordinary practice. During the 2012 Olympics, artistic gymnast Makayla Maroney became famous for her athletic abilities. She also got renowned for a facial expression that she exhibited when awarded a silver medal (Sénéchal et al, 2013). The idea more interesting than Makayla’s expression was how different observers interpreted her facial expression with varying meanings.

Ten articles on facial feedback hypothesis from Walden library

1. ‘Comparison of three theories relating facial expressiveness to blood pressure in male and female undergraduates’ –Davidson et al, 1994.

This article examines differing predictions of how emotional expressions and blood pressure are related. For this study spontaneous positive and negative facial expressions were measured for 148 male and female undergraduates. The resting systolic blood pressure (SBP), and reactive SBP were also accounted. Keeping in line with the discharge theory of emotions (few expressions will predict higher baseline SBP) results differed for men. On the other hand, women had an imbalance for negative and positive expressions in line with the mismatch theory.

2. Impaired recognition of prosody and subtle emotional facial expressions in Parkinson's disease.

By

Buxton, Sharon L.; MacDonald, Lorraine; Tippett, Lynette J. Behavioral Neuroscience, Vol 127(2), Apr 2013, 193-203. doi: 10.1037/a0032013

Buxton et al (2013) introduce their study with the importance of correct recognition of emotional facial expressions. For a healthy and accurate social interaction, relationships it is important that the emotional expressions are accurately recognized. Patients suffering from Parkinson’s disease (PD) have seen to misunderstand or not recognize the facial expressions of others but some conflicting results of the theory have been found also. This study examines this conflict and uses 30 individuals who suffer from PD for the experiment. Their results show that patients suffering from PD recognize facial expressions of happiness more accurately compared to other subtle emotions expressed. The study also concludes that medicated PD individuals perform better at expressions recognition as compared to non medicated PD individuals.

3. Facial emotional processing in HIV infection: Relation to neurocognitive and neuropsychiatric status.

By

Lane, Tammy A.; Moore, Danielle M.; Batchelor, Jennifer; Brew, Bruce J.; Cysique, Lucette A. Neuropsychology, Vol 26(6), Nov 2012, 713-722. doi: 10.1037/a0029964

The objective of this study is to examine facial emotional processing in HIV+ individuals and its relation to neuro cognitive performance, neuropsychiatric symptomatology and immune status. Participants included 85 HIV+ individuals (83 males, 2 females) and 25 same age HIV− individuals (22 males, 3 females). The used The University of Pennsylvania computerized neuropsychological facial emotion test battery, standardized neuropsychological testing, neurobehavioral questionnaires, a semi structured psychiatric interview. Results showed a slight difference for recognition of sadness, ability to distinguish between happiness and fear. It was also observed that HIV+ individuals with HIV-associated neuro cognitive disorder had abnormal emotional facial recognition and slower recognition of negative facial expressions. The study concludes that stable HIV+ individuals ‘show a mild level of emotional processing reduction that is dissociated from neuropsychiatric complaints’.

4. Recognition of facial expressions of mixed emotions in school-age children exposed to terrorism

by

Scrimin, Sara; Moscardino, Ughetta; Capello, Fabia; Altoè, Gianmarco; Axia, Giovanna Developmental Psychology, Vol 45(5), Sep 2009, 1341-1352.

doi: 10.1037/a0016689

This study aims at investigating the effects of terrorism on children’s ability to recognize emotions. The method used was to study the facial expressions of children with mean age 11 years old after exposure to terrorist attack. A sample of 101 exposed and 102 non exposed children, balanced for age and gender were assessed. The assessment lasted for 20 months after a terrorist attack in Beslan, Russia. The results showed that the exposed children group was able to recognize ‘mixed emotion facial stimuli’ more than the unexposed children group. Scrimin et al concluded that exposed children labeled facial expression of anger and sadness more correctly than unexposed children.

5. The impact of facial emotional expressions on behavioral tendencies in women and men.

By

Seidel, Eva-Maria; Habel, Ute; Kirschner, Michaela; Gur, Ruben C.; Derntl, Birgit

Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, Vol 36(2), Apr 2010, 500-507. doi:10.1037/a0018169

Seidel et al start their article with an emphasis on emotional faces used as a means to communicate the emotional state of a person. They add that emotional faces sometimes also convey the behavioral intentions of an individual. The facial expressions can also affect the behavior of the perceiver then. This study compares the behavioral reactions of the perceiver to facial expressions of happiness, sadness, disgust and anger. 55 females and 49 males who were Caucasian and similar in age from Vienna University participated in the study. Participants viewed 24 colored photographs of Caucasian actors that showed evoked facial expressions of emotions. The results showed evidence that men and women react almost similarly but there are differences in reactions to male and female faces. This reaction may be influenced by the socialization process and cultural differences. Results also showed a pattern of reactive behavior to specific facial expressions like avoidance for anger, approach for sad and happy expression, withdrawal for disgust.

6. Happy mouth and sad eyes: Scanning emotional facial expressions.

By

Eisenbarth, Hedwig; Alpers, Georg W. Emotion, Vol 11(4), Aug 2011, 860-865.

doi: 10.1037/a0022758

For years eyes have been associated with emotional expression on the face. This study examines some specific regions of the face like the mouth and eyes that are considered vital in facial expression of emotions. The method involved eye tracking to monitor ‘scanning’ behavior of participants while they look at different facial expressions. Duration and location of fixations were recorded along with a dominance ratio (eyes and mouth to the rest of the face). The study concluded that there is a relation between eyes and mouth in emotional decoding. The results also show that not all emotions are interpreted in not the same manner and confirm the relevance between facial expressions of emotions.

7. Categorical perception of emotional facial expressions does not require lexical categories.

By

Sauter, Disa A.; LeGuen, Oliver; Haun, Daniel B. M. Emotion, Vol 11(6), Dec 2011, 1479-1483.  doi: 10.1037/a0025336

We know that our perception of others' emotional signals depend on the language we speak. This articles questions if it is the language or is it our perception regardless of language and culture? This article is more an investigation into the perception of emotions among various language groups. The process reveals that emotions are perceived on the basis of a biological process and not on lexical (related to a particular language) distinctions.

8. Age-related decrease in recognition of emotional facial and prosodic expressions.

By

Lambrecht, Lena; Kreifelts, Benjamin; Wildgruber, Dirk. Emotion, Vol 12(3), Jun 2012, 529-539. doi: 10.1037/a0026827

This article starts with highlighting how crucial is the ability to recognize nonverbal emotional signals for successful social communication at any age. Prior studies have shown connection between age and emotion recognition with a prosodic approach. This study aimed at using more natural settings by presenting stimuli under auditory, visual and audiovisual conditions. 44 mean and 40 women within the age range of 20-70 years were tested for their abilities to recognize non verbal emotions. The results showed a decline in age related abilities to recognize emotions independent of the kind of stimuli presented. The results suggest a change in cognitive abilities to understand emotions that go beyond the age related abilities.

9. Identification of emotional facial expressions following recovery from depression.

By

LeMoult, Joelle; Joormann, Jutta; Sherdell, Lindsey; Wright, Yamanda; Gotlib, Ian H.

Journal of Abnormal Psychology, Vol 118(4), Nov 2009, 828-833. doi:10.1037/a0016944

This study investigated the identification of facial expressions of emotion in currently non depressed participants. These participants have however, had a history of recurrent depressive by episodes (recurrent major depression; RMD) and never-depressed control participants (CTL). The participants were presented with faces with changing expressions from neutral to full intensity. Results were collected by the intensity of the expression correctly identified by the participant. There were no major group differences for sad and angry expressions, but CTL participants were able to identify expressions at a lower intensity compared to the RMD participants. The study concluded that despite being treated RMD participants had some bias towards facial expressions.

10. Gender differences in implicit and explicit processing of emotional facial expressions as revealed by event-related theta synchronization.

By

Knyazev, Gennady G.; Slobodskoj-Plusnin, Jaroslav Y.; Bocharov, Andrey V. Emotion, Vol 10(5), Oct 2010, 678-687. doi: 10.1037/a0019175

This articles starts with the hypothesis that women are better interpreters of facial expressions as compared to men. It talks about facial expression of emotions as early as birth and infancy when a baby is unable to verbalize his emotions, and facial expressions are the key to what he is feelings. Facial expression of emotions is processed in two modes that are differently present in the conscious mind. These modes can be understood in connection with ‘event-related electroencephalogram’ (ERT) as a marker of facial expression processing. The ERT synchronization is more pronounced in the early processing stage compared to explicit processing. Early processing is more pronounced in men as compared to women and may be connected to differences in social behavior.

Further research

 I found articles and research on facial feedback hypothesis on emotional expression that account for age, gender and disease. I did not find enough literature however that investigates facial expression of emotions distinction in reference to culture. There was one article by Sauter et al (2011) on lexical distinctions not effecting facial expression recognition. Scope for further research is vast if facial feedback of emotional expression is investigated in different cultures and parts of the work. This can vary with how different cultures express, handle or understand happiness, anger, disgust and other basic emotions.

Another aspect of the topic is the lifestyle and prior training. A marine or veteran may have a controlled facial feedback of emotional expression as compared to a school teacher of young kids. Further research can be conducted in this range as well.

References

Azar, B. E. T. H. (2000). What's in a face?. Monitor on Psychology, 31(1), 44-45.

Buxton, S. L., MacDonald, L., & Tippett, L. J. (2013). Impaired recognition of prosody and subtle emotional facial expressions in Parkinson's disease. Behavioral Neuroscience, 127(2), 193

Davidson, K. W., Prkachin, K. M., Mills, D. E., & Lefcourt, H. M. (1994). Comparison of three theories relating facial expressiveness to blood pressure in male and female undergraduates. Health Psychology, 13(5), 404.

Ekman, P. (1993). Facial expression and emotion. American Psychologist,48(4), 384.

Eisenbarth, H., & Alpers, G. W. (2011). Happy mouth and sad eyes: Scanning emotional facial expressions. Emotion, 11(4), 860.

Knyazev, G. G., Slobodskoj-Plusnin, J. Y., & Bocharov, A. V. (2010). Gender differences in implicit and explicit processing of emotional facial expressions as revealed by event-related theta synchronization. Emotion, 10(5), 678.

Lambrecht, L., Kreifelts, B., & Wildgruber, D. (2012). Age-related decrease in recognition of emotional facial and prosodic expressions. Emotion, 12(3), 529.

 Lane, T. A., Moore, D. M., Batchelor, J., Brew, B. J., & Cysique, L. A. (2012). Facial emotional processing in HIV infection: Relation to Neurocognitive and neuropsychiatric status. Neuropsychology, 26(6), 713.

LeMoult, J., Joormann, J., Sherdell, L., Wright, Y., & Gotlib, I. H. (2009). Identification of emotional facial expressions following recovery from depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 118(4), 828.

Sauter, D. A., LeGuen, O., & Haun, D. (2011). Categorical perception of emotional facial expressions does not require lexical categories. Emotion,11(6), 1479.

Scrimin, S., Moscardino, U., Capello, F., Altoè, G., & Axia, G. (2009). Recognition of facial expressions of mixed emotions in school-age children exposed to terrorism. Developmental Psychology, 45(5), 1341

Sénéchal, T., Turcot, J., & El Kaliouby, R. (2013). Smile or smirk? automatic detection of spontaneous asymmetric smiles to understand viewer experience. In Automatic Face and Gesture Recognition.

Proposal for hearing impaired pregnant teenagers

Program proposal; Unplanned pregnancy among hearing impaired teenagers

By

Aysha Siddiqui

Walden University

Introduction

This program is proposed for adolescents ages between 13 and 18, who are hearing impaired. The classes for these students are held together at school. Teachers and school administrators have become aware that there is a large number of unplanned pregnancies and cases of sexually transmitted diseases/ infections (STDs/ STIs). The program is designed as an intervention to reduce the number of pregnancies and cases of STDs among this population of adolescents. These are hearing impaired teenagers who have special needs and a disability, so this program will need to be customized to this condition for its success.

Description of Program Proposal

This program proposes that an intervention which considers the limitation of the population involved be made. The foremost step of the program is to provide sex education to the teenagers with emphasis on safe sex practices, age appropriate basis and birth control. According to Dawson (1986) sex education may not have a direct or a big effect on preventing pregnancies, but it does influence teenagers ‘contraceptive knowledge’. Teenagers who’ve had sex education report to use more methods compared to those who’ve had no education.                   

Challenges to the Program

With this population the challenge of mode of education will be faced. Visual presentations, slide shows and maybe even small skits with role playing would be a good way of communication. Theater productions with a special form of art called ‘Mime’ can be very effective. Mime is ‘the art of portraying characters and acting out situations or a narrative by gestures and body movement without the use of words’ (the free dictionary.com). Mime can be a way of education these teenagers about an issue that’s intense but it’s presented in an entertaining and fun manner. This can be a source of friendly interaction and discussion between classmates about topics related to the problem that’s at hand.

Integral role of Educators: Teachers will play a very vital role in this intervention. Antia (1982) study with hearing impaired children and teenagers revealed that social interaction and ‘physical proximity’ with teachers was of importance to hearing impaired children. These kids did not seem to interact with peers as compared to kids who are not hearing impaired, but they interact with the teachers more comparatively.

Effective strategies: A strategy that’s found effective with teenagers who are not hearing impaired is distraction from inappropriate behavior towards other extracurricular activities. This strategy maybe effective with this group as well and the intervention could include offering more physical activities or extracurricular activities to the kids, especially those that don’t require too much of listening. Examples are chess, dance (ballerina), musical lessons or more such activities.

Burton et al (2005) study on protective behavior for young found that participation in sports played a role in prediction ‘rule breaking’ behavior. The results of the study also showed that there is a ‘positive correlation’ between teenagers getting involved and participating in sports and exhibiting aggressive behavior. Getting involved in sports or activities may act as a deterrent among these teenagers and help reduce sexual activity among them. This can then have an effect on the number of unplanned pregnancies and cases of STDs/ STIs.

Conclusion

It is clear that these teenagers are developing sexually, socially and emotionally like all other teenagers. Any program aimed at helping these teenagers to reduce cases of sexually transmitted diseases or infection and unplanned pregnancies has a better chance of being successful if it looks at these teenagers as regular kids, and not as ones with a disability. The condition of being hearing impaired should just effect the mediums and modes of communication used, but not the approach about what will appeal to these teenagers.

 References

Antia, S. D. (1982). Social interaction of partially mainstreamed hearing-impaired children. American annals of the deaf, 127(1), 18-25.

Burton, J. M., & Marshall, L. A. (2005). Protective factors for youth considered at risk of criminal behaviour: does participation in extracurricular activities help?.Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health, 15(1), 46-64.     

Dawson, D. A. (1986). The effects of sex education on adolescent behavior.Family Planning Perspectives, 162-170.

Analysis of 'From ineffectiveness to destruction: A qualitative study on the meaning of negative leadership’ by Schilling (2009)

Introduction

 The article under discussion here is ‘from ineffectiveness to destruction: A qualitative study on the meaning of negative leadership’ by Schilling (2009). This article aims at understanding the meaning, conceptions and consequences of the term ’negative leadership’ among managers. Schilling (2009) begins with detailed definitions and meanings attached to the term ‘leadership’ and then moves on to explain what would ‘negative leadership’ stand for.

Following the introduction, Schilling writes about three different lines of theory relevant to the topic. These theories include: the research on abusive and tyrannical supervision by Blake Ashforth, Ben Tepper, the conception of different destructive leadership styles by Stale Einarsen and colleagues, third is the ideas on leadership (pseudo transformational and charismatic) by Jay Conger, Robert House and Bernard Bass.

The method section of the article includes the author’s explanation of the use of a Qualitative research method. More importantly, the author also lists the measures of content analysis to highlight how the study satisfies any concerns of the quality of the method chosen. The list includes all measures taken in the methods used and in examining the data collected to overcome some of the ethical issues, data analysis vagueness. 

Characteristics of qualitative research

According to Creswell (2013) the definition of Qualitative research has evolved due to the nature of the research method that is exploratory and open ended. Creswell (2013) defines Qualitative research by the characteristics that are unique to this method as ‘an emerging approach of inquiry that collects data in a natural setting. 

In the next step I will analyze the article by Schilling (2009) for the characteristics of qualitative research in reference of the characteristics defined by Creswell (2013).

1. According to Creswell (2013) in a Qualitative research study researchers collect data in a ‘natural setting’ at a location where the problem or issue under study takes place. Schilling (2009) conducted his research with 42 middle and top managers at a telecommunication firm. Open ended interviews were conducted in a natural setting and not in a laboratory or experimental site.
2. Researcher is the ‘key instrument’ in a Qualitative research and collect data themselves (2013). The researcher could use a questionnaire designed by them or observe, interpret behavior themselves. Schilling used a questionnaire in which participants were answering open ended questions with main answers and alternatives. As mentioned in the articles ‘all interviews were conducted by the same interviewer’ and were recorded with the consent of the participant.
3. Multiple methods is another characteristics of Qualitative research which means gather data through various means like questionnaires, interviews or observation and not rely on one instrument (Creswell, 2013). Schilling specifically explains in the measures part of the articles that two instruments were used: open ended questionnaire and recorded interviews that gave the participant the opportunities to add any more information they desired. This information was then decoded and with understanding of the interviewer and participant added as data.
4. Complex reasoning is used throughout the research process and the researcher uses a deductive logic to understand themes that are built on the data collected (Creswell, 2013).  Schilling clearly writes that there was ‘set by step formulation of inductive categories in different dimensions’. In addition to that there was revision of categories constantly when 10 to 50 percent of material was coded. In the end, finally there was another revision of the data.
5. All along researcher go with the meaning the participants attach to the issue and not what the researcher brings from the literature (Creswell, 2013). Schilling makes it clear that the participants during the time of interview were at full liberty to express any views or thoughts they had that were not covered in the questionnaire. These ideas were then rechecked by the interviewer for relevance and added to the data with participant’s understanding.
6. ‘Holistic Account’ that means the researcher go along the complexity of the issue and identify the many factors that are related to the issue (Creswell, 2013). Schilling has taken into account the antecedents, behaviors and consequences of ‘negative leadership’. The article also explains in depth the three theories that drive the issue and the article. All three theories are separate and cover a complex angle of the issue.

  

References

Creswell, J. W. (2013). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Sage.

Schilling, J. (2009, Feb). From ineffectiveness to destruction: A qualitative study on the meaning of negative leadership. Leadership, 5, 102–128.